Structure of Language

he Structure of style speech communication is a system of symbols and rules that is delectationd for meaningful communication. A system of communication has to get hold of certain criteria in order to be considered a spoken communication A nomenclature substance ab ingestions symbols, which atomic number 18 sounds, gestures, or written characters that represent objects, actions, events, and ideas. Symbols enable tribe to refer to objects that are in an archaean(a) place or events that occurred at a several(predicate) time. A quarrel is meaningful and therefore buns be understood by other users of that words.A lyric is generative, which means that the symbols of a expression throw out be amalgamated to formulate an interminable r forbiddenine of messages. A phrase has rules that govern how symbols coffin nail be arranged. These rules allow slew to represent messages in that speech even if they halt never encountered those messages before. The construction Bl ocks of Language Language is organized hierarchically, from phonemes to morphemes to phrases and sentences that exceed meaning. Phonemes Phonemes are the smallest distinguishable units in a language.In the face language, any(prenominal) consonants, such as t, p, and m, mark off to wiz phonemes, while other consonants, such as c and g, can correspond to more than than one phoneme. Vowels typically correspond to more than one phoneme. For example, o corresponds to different phonemes depending on whether it is pronounced as in bone or woman. Some phonemes correspond to combinations of consonants, such as ch, sh, and th. Morphemes Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in a language. In the English language, notwithstanding a few iodine letters, such as I and a, are morphemes. Morphemes are usually safe and sound reciprocations or meaningful parts of words, such as refixes, suffixes, and word stems. Example The word dis cared has three morphemes dis, lik, and ed. Synt ax Syntax is a system of rules that governs how words can be meaningfully arranged to diverseness phrases and sentences. Example One rule of syntax is that an article such as the must come before a noun, not after put down the book, not Read book the. Language Development in Children Children bristle language in a set sequence of stages, although sometimes occurrence skills develop at slightly different ages Three-month-old babys can distinguish surrounded by the phonemes from each language.At around six months, infants mystify babbling, or producing sounds that resemble many different languages. As time goes on, these sounds begin to resemble more closely the words of the languages the infant hears. At close thirteen months, children begin to cause simple single words. By rough twenty-four months, children begin to combine two or three words to murder short sentences. At this stage, their speech is usually telegraphic. Telegraphic speech, like telegrams, contains no ar ticles or prepositions. By approximately age three years, children can usually use tenses and plurals.Childrens language abilities continue to grow throughout the school-age years. They become able to take in ambiguity and sarcasm in language and to use metaphors and puns. These abilities arise from metalinguistic awareness, or the capacity to regard about how language is used. Ambiguous Language Language whitethorn sometimes be used reversely but equable eat an unclear meaning or multiple meanings. In these cases, language is ambiguousit can be understood in several centerings. negate biting dogs is an example of an ambiguous sentence. A person index act it as Keep out of the way of biting dogs or take ont bite dogs.Theories of Language eruditeness The nature vs. get up flip extends to the topic of language acquisition. Today, most searchers acknow guidege that both nature and hold dear play a role in language acquisition. However, some researchers mark the ascert ains of uplifting on language acquisition, while others emphasize the biologic influences. exposed Language before Expressive Language Childrens baron to understand language develops faster than their ability to emit it. Receptive language is the ability to understand language, and expressive language is the ability to use language to communicate.If a mother tells her fifteen-month-old child to put the shirk back in the toy chest, he may bind her instruction manual even though he cant repeat them himself. milieual Influences on Language Acquisition A study proponent of the idea that language depends largely on surround was the behaviorist B. F. Skinner (see pages 145 and 276 for more information on Skinner). He believed that language is becomed through principles of conditioning, including association, imitation, and reinforcement. According to this view, children learn words by associating sounds with objects, actions, and events.They also learn words and syntax by imita ting others. Adults enable children to learn words and syntax by reinforcing correct speech. Critics of this idea argue that a behaviorist explanation is inadequate. They maintain several arguments Learning cannot account for the rapid rate at which children make headway language. There can be an infinite number of sentences in a language. All these sentences cannot be learned by imitation. Children make errors, such as overregularizing verbs. For example, a child may enjoin Billy hitted me, in powerful adding the usual past tense suffix -ed to hit.Errors like these cant result from imitation, since adults generally use correct verb forms. Children acquire language skills even though adults do not consistently correct their syntax. Neural Networks Some cognitive neuroscientists have created neural networks, or calculating machine models, that can acquire some aspects of language. These neural networks are not preprogrammed with any rules. Instead, they are exposed to many exampl es of a language. Using these examples, the neural networks have been able to learn the languages statistical social structure and accurately make the past tense forms of verbs.The developers of these networks speculate that children may acquire language in a connatural way, through exposure to multiple examples. biological Influences on Language Acquisition The main proponent of the view that biological influences bring about language development is the well-known linguist Noam Chomsky. Chomsky argues that gracious brains have a language acquisition braid (LAD), an unlettered implement or process that allows children to develop language skills. According to this view, all children are born with a universal grammar, which makes them receptive to the common features of all languages.Because of this hard-wired background signal in grammar, children good pick up a language when they are exposed to its particular grammar. Evidence for an innate human capacity to acquire language skills comes from the following observations The stages of language development occur at about the same ages in most children, even though different children commence very different environments. Childrens language development follows a like pattern across cultures. Children generally acquire language skills pronto and apparent motionlessly. desensitize children who have not been exposed to a language may make up their own language.These new languages resemble each other in sentence structure, even when they are created in different cultures. Biology and Environment Some researchers have proposed theories that emphasize the importance of both nature and nurture in language acquisition. These theorists believe that humanity do have an innate capacity for acquiring the rules of language. However, they believe that children develop language skills through funda affable interaction with others rather than acquire the knowledge automatically. Language, Culture, and Thought Researc hers have differing views about the achievement to which language and culture influence the way passel think.In the 1950s, Benjamin lee(prenominal) Whorf proposed the linguistic relativity hypothesis. He said language determines the way mess think. For example, Whorf said that Eskimo hoi polloi and English- chattering heap think about cytosine differently because the Eskimo language has many more words for snow than the English language does. Most subsequent research has not supported Whorfs hypothesis. Researchers do acknowledge, however, that language can influence thought in insidious ship canal. For example, the use of sexist terminology may influence how people think about women.Two ways that people comm only if use language to influence mentation are semantic slanting and expose career. Semantic sloping Semantic slanting is a way of making statements so that they ordain evoke specific emotional responses. Example Military personnel use the term preemptive countera ttack rather than invasion, since invasion is likely to produce more negative feelings in people. Name Calling Name calling is a strategy of labeling people in order to influence their thinking. In anticipatory name calling, it is implied that if someone thinks in a particular way, he or she will receive an unfavorable label.Example On the day a student buys a new desk, he might say, Only a slob would pile junk on a desk like this. This might help ensure that his roommate keeps it free of junk. bilingualistism Although people sometimes pick out that bilingualism impairs childrens language development, there is no evidence to support this assumption. Bilingual children develop language at the same rate as children who speak only one language. In general, people who begin learning a new language in childhood master it more quickly and thoroughly than do people who learn a language in adulthood. Language and Nonhuman PrimatesSome researchers have tried to teach apes to use language. Because of the structure of their vocal organs, apes cant say words, but they can communicate using signs or computers. Using these means, apes can make requests, respond to questions, and follow instructions. The Case of Washoe the Chimpanzee Researchers at Central Washington University taught a chimp named Washoe to use American Sign Language (ASL) to communicate. She could sign not only single words but also meaningful combinations of words. She could follow instructions and respond to questions given in ASL.Later, Washoes foster child, Loulis, learned signs still by watching Washoe and other chimps that had been prepare to use language. Some research even suggested that language-trained chimps may use signs spontaneously to communicate with each other or to chatter to themselves, although this behavior is not thoroughly documented. Skepticism about Ape Language Critics of the idea that apes can learn and use language have maintained several arguments Apes, unlike people, ca n be trained to learn only a limited number of words and only with difficulty.Apes use signs or computers to get a reward, in the same way that other animals can be taught tricks. But learning tricks is not akin to learning language. Apes adoptt use syntax. For example, they dont hump the difference between Me eat apple and Apple eat me. Trainers may be reading meanings into signs apes make and unintentionally providing cues that help them to respond correctly to questions. Clearly, communication in nonhuman animals differs drastically from language in existence. The spontaneity, uniqueness, and wistful content of human language remains unmatched. Nonprimates Can CommunicateResearchers have taught nonprimate animals, such as parrots, to communicate meaningfully. Parrots that participated in language acquisition studies learned to come across dozens of objects, distinguish colors, and make simple requests in English. One noted example is Alex the African gray parrot, owned by Irene Pepperberg from the University of Arizona. Alex can speak hundreds of words, but what makes him more unique is that he appears to do more than secure vocalize. Though Pepperberg does not claim that Alex uses language, she does believe that when Alex talks, he is expressing his thoughts, not plainly mimicking.The Structure of Cognition Cognition, or thinking, involves mental activities such as understanding, job solving, and decision making. Cognition also makes creativity possible. The Building Blocks of Cognition When humans think, they manipulate mental representations of objects, actions, events, and ideas. Humans commonly use mental representations such as suppositions, prototypes, and cognitive schemas. Concepts A concept is a mental class that groups similar objects, events, qualities, or actions. Concepts summarize information, enabling humans to think quickly.Example The concept search includes specific creatures, such as an eel, a goldfish, a shark, and a flying fish. Prototypes A prototype is a typical example of a concept. Humans use prototypes to decide whether a particular instance of something belongs to a concept. Example Goldfish and eels are both fish, but most people will agree that a goldfish is a fish more quickly than they will agree that an eel is a fish. A goldfish fits the fish prototype better than an eel does. cognitive Schemas Cognitive schemas are mental models of different aspects of the world. They contain knowledge, beliefs, assumptions, associations, and expectations.Example People may have a schema about spick-and-span York that includes information theyve learned about advanced York in school, their memories of New York, things people have told them about New York, information from movies and books about New York, what they assume to be true about New York, and so on. Theories of Cognitive Development Cognitive development refers to the change in childrens patterns of thinking as they grow older. Jean Piagets Sta ge Theory The scientist take up known for research on cognitive development is Jean Piaget (see pages 7275), who proposed that childrens thinking goes through a set eries of four major stages. Piaget believed that childrens cognitive skills amplify naturally as they mature and explore their environment. Lev Vygotskys Theory of Sociocultural Influences Psychologist Lev Vygotsky believed that childrens sociocultural environment plays an all-important(a) role in how they develop cognitively. In Vygotskys view, the acquisition of language is a crucial part of cognitive development. After children acquire language, they dont just go through a set serial publication of stages. Rather, their cognitive development depends on interactions with adults, cultural norms, and their environmental circumstances.Private Speech Vygotsky pointed out that children use language to control their own behavior. After children acquire language skills and learn the rules of their culture, they start to e ngage in private speech. They first talk to themselves out loud, and then, as they grow older, silently, giving themselves instructions about how to behave. new Research on Cognitive Development Current research indicates that children have complex cognitive abilities at much younger ages than Piaget suggested. As early as four months of age, infants appear to understand raw material laws of physics.For example, a four-month-old infant can recognize that unfaltering objects cannot pass through other solid objects and that objects roll down slopes instead of rolling up. At five months of age, infants can recognize the correct answers to addition and subtraction tasks involving small numbers. These observations have led some researchers to speculate that humans are born with some basic cognitive abilities. Critics argue that researchers who find these results are overinterpreting the behavior of the infants they study. Quick freshen up The Structure of LanguageLanguage is a syste m of symbols and rules used for meaningful communication. A language uses symbols and syntax and is meaningful and generative. Language is organized hierarchically from phonemes to morphemes to phrases and sentences. Children develop language in a set sequence of stages. Theories of Language Acquisition behaviouristic B. F. Skinner strongly supported the idea that language depends largely on environment. Skinner believed that people acquire language through principles of conditioning. Critics argue the deficiency of behaviorist explanations.Some cognitive neuroscientists have created neural networks that can acquire some aspects of language by encountering many examples of language. They think children may acquire language in the same way. Noam Chomsky is the main proponent of the importance of biological influences on language development. Chomsky proposed that human brains have a language acquisition device that allows children to acquire language easily. Some researchers believ e that language is both biologically and environmentally determined. The linguistic relativity hypothesis states that language determines the way people think.Today, researchers believe language influences, rather than determines, thought. Two ways that people use language to influence thinking are semantic slanting and name calling. People master a new language better if they begin learning it in childhood. Nonhuman animals can learn some aspects of language. Language and Nonhuman Primates Some researchers have tried to teach apes to use language. Apes can communicate, but researchers are divided on whether this communication can really be considered learning language. The Structure of CognitionCognition involves activities such as understanding, problem solving, decision making, and being productive. People use mental representations such as concepts, prototypes, and cognitive schemas when they think. Theories of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget believed that childrens cognitiv e skills unfold naturally as they mature and explore their environment. Lev Vygotsky believed that childrens sociocultural environment plays an important role in cognitive development. Some researchers have shown that humans are born with some basic cognitive abilities. Problem-SolvingProblem-solving is the active effort people make to achieve a goal that is not easily attained. Three common types of problems involve inducing structure, arranging, and transformation. Some approaches to problem-solving are rivulet and error, deductive and inductive reasoning, use of algorithms and trial-and-errors, dialectical reasoning, creation of subgoals, use of similar problems, and changes in the way the problems are represented. Researchers have identified many obstacles to efficient problem-solving, such as focus on irrelevant information, functional fixedness, mental set, and assumptions about unnecessary constraints.Decision-Making Decision-making involves weighing alternatives and choos ing among them. Additive strategies and elimination strategies are ways of making decisions about preferences. Using expected value, subjective utility, the approachability heuristic program, and the representativeness heuristic are all ways of making risky decisions. Using the representativeness heuristic can make people susceptible to biases, such as the trend to ignore base rates and the gamblers fallacy. Using the availability heuristic can make people susceptible to overestimating the improbable or underestimating the probable.In an effort to minimize risk, people also make decision-making errors, such as the overconfidence effect, the confirmation bias, and belief perseverance. Creativity Creativity is the ability to convey novel, useful ideas. Creativity is characterized by divergent, rather than convergent, thinking. Some characteristics of creative people are expertise, nonconformity, curiosity, persistence, and intrinsic motivation. People can best realize their creati ve potential if they are in environmental circumstances that promote creativity.