Pest Detection on Leafs Using Robot and Processing Labview

Pest Detection on Leafs Using Robot and Processing LabviewABSTRACT novel century is a full of technology.N whizz plain stitch arset remain without the engross of the technology. Agriculture is one of those field. Agriculture is the backbone of India. more or less of the scientists be doing research to increase the cultivate of crops. But one trouble still exist which is a major(ip) concern of the horticulture of crop and that is crop lads. Due to these problems, The cultivation decreases and hence either the farmers and in crack the country suffers from lack of cultivation of crop.With the recent advancement in calculate touch on and similar related techniques, it is possible to develop an autonomous system for oath divisionification. early on incurion of pest or the initial presence of a bio aggressor is a key-point for crop management.If we ar equal to descry it at the initial stage, we can prevent pest on leaves without spreading either over the field, which strangles the loss of crop and money. In recent years, the development of the automatons in agriculture has agriculture introduced. These robots should be subject of unraveling 24 hours a day, in all weather condition.So if we utilise robots kind of of farmers for espial the pests on hitchs efficiently, we can reduce the loss of crop and money.I. INTRODUCTIONAgriculture is the backbone of India. Mostof the scientists are doing research to increase the cultivity of crops. But one problem still exist which is a major concern of the cultivation of crop and that is crop pests. Due to these problems, the cultivation decreases and hence all the farmers and in turn the country suffers fromlack of cultivation of crop. Different casings of pesticides are there in market which are use to avoid the damage to fruit and vegetable, but the amount of pesticides to be utilise is not k straightn out-of-pocket to which the cost as well as the environmental pollution gets moved(p). A strong demand now exists in many countries for non-chemical fake methods for pests or affections. Greenhouses are considered as biophysical systems with inputs, makes and control process loops. Most of these control loops are automatized (e.g., climate and irrigation control).However no automatic methods are uncommitted which precisely and periodically detect the pests on plants. In fact, in production conditions, periodically observes plants and search for pests. This manual method is too judgment of conviction consuming. Diagnosis is most difficult task to perform manually as it is a function of a number of parameters such as environment, nutrient, organism etc. With the recent advancement in realize processing and similar related techniques, it is possible to develop an autonomous system for pest classification. Early detection of pest or the initial presence of a bio aggressor is a key- point for crop management. The detection of biological objects as blue as such insects (dimensions are about 2mm) is a real challenge, especially when considering greenhouses dimensions (10- 100m long). For this enjoyment different measures are undertaken such as manual observation of plants. This method does not give exact measures. Hence automatic detection is very much important for early detection of pests. Hence we need to detect the pest at the earlier stage not to spread all over the field.If we are able to detect it at the initial stage, we can prevent pest on interchanges without spreading all over the field, which reduces the loss of crop and money.In recent years, the development of robots in agriculture has introduced. These robots should be capable of working 24 hours a day, in all weather conditions. So if we use robots instead of farmers for spotting the pests on leafs efficiently, we can reduce the loss of crop and money.II.LITERATURESURVEYRecent papers are describing to detectmainly pests like aphids, snow-cladflies, thrips, etc development va rious approaches suggesting the various implementation ways as illustrated and discussed below.1 Proposed a cognitive vision system that combines image processing, learning and knowledge- base techniques. They only detect mature stage of color fly and count the number of flies on single leaflet. They used 180 images as try dataset .among this images they tested 162 images and each image having 0 to 5 whitefly pest. They calculate untrue negative rate (FNR) and false positive rate (FPR) for test images with no whiteflies (class 1), at least one white fly (class 2) and for unharmed test set.2 Extend implementation of the image processing algorithms and techniques to detect pests in controlled environment like greenhouse. common chord kinds of typical features including size, morphological feature (shape of boundary), and color components were considered and investigated to identify the three kinds of adult insects, whiteflies, aphids and trips.3 Promote early pest detection in gr een houses found on video outline. Their goal was to define a finish support system which handles a video tv camera data. They implemented algorithms for detection of only two bioagressors establish as white flies and aphids. The system was able to detect low infestation stages by detecting eggs of white flies thus analyzing doings of white flies.4 Proposed pest detection system including quadruplet steps name as color conversion, segmentation, reduction in noise and counting whiteflies. A obvious algorithm name as relative difference in pixel intensities (RDI) was proposedfor detecting pest named as white fly affecting various leaves. The algorithm not only works for greenhouse based crops but also agricultural based crops as well. The algorithm was tested over 100 images of white fly pest with an accuracy of 96%.5 Proposed a new method of pest detection and attitude based on binocular stereo to get the location information of pest, which was used for guiding the robot to s pray the pesticides automatically.14 introduced contextual parameter tuning for adaptive image segmentation, that allows to efficiently tune algorithm parameters with assess to variations in leaf color and contrast.III.EXISTING frameIn earlier days in order to detect the peston leafs they used early pest detection in green houses based on video analysis. Their goal was to define a decision support system which handles a video camera data. They implemented algorithms for detection of only two bioagressors name as white flies and aphids. The system was able to detect low infestation stages by detecting eggs of white flies thus analyzing behavior of white flies. But this project has many limitations like it is time consuming process and also the fruit exit not get accurately. So in order to eliminate these limitations ,we are going to proposed a system named pest detection on leafs by using robot and processing in LabVIEW.IV.PROPOSEDSYSTEMIn this proposed system we are fashioningu se of robots in order to take the live images from field constituent to monitoring atom. The images taken by the robot processed and the oddball of disease is displayed accurately. By using this project we can get the output accurately and the emblem of disease. As we are making use of LabVIEW (Laboratory Virtual orchestration Engineering Workbench) software ,in this software instead of text there are making use of icons in order to create the programs. compared to the other softwares this software as many advantages like it provide not show any errors at the time of executing the program, whereas other softwares even a small error is there means we allow for not get the output showing there is some errors, it eliminates the limitations in the existing system. Once you taken the image and create the class mentioning the type of samples in LabVIEW, decidedly we will get the output mentioning the type of diseases. Workload on farmers is minimized by using these type of system. By making a track for robot it will be worked the right(a) way in nonstick and unequal surfaces. If we use chain instead of wheels in the field, robot can work more efficaciously on unequal surface of the field. Farmers dont have to go in the field because robots do their work properly and effectively. Time consumed by the robots for detecting the pest on leafs is less than mankind, which can work efficiently. design 1 duck DiagramV.WORKINGIn pulley hold on diagram we are using the webcamera in order to take the live pictures from field section to the monitoring section. We are using high explanation web camera model number (jil-2247).This web camera takes the images of affected leaf which are caused collect to pests. Generally we prefer this type of web camera because it has high flexibly, as well the cost of this type of web camera is very less. It will sendlive pictures from field section to monitoring section up to 10 meters distance. We are using wired web camera and this web camera is affiliated to system through USB cable. This web camera is generally monitored through the system.Next we are using Arduino UNO. The Arduino Uno is a Microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet).it has 14 digital input/output pins(of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs),6 Analog inputs,16 MHZ crystal oscillator , a USB connection , a power prick , an ICSP header , and a reset button. In this project we are making use of only 4 digital input/output pins (i.e. pin nos 8, 9, 10, 11), 5v in and Ground pin. These 4 digital pins acts as output pins and also we are making use of 5v output pin as well as fuse Pin. Remaining pins we are not using in this project. These 4pins are affiliated to 4 relays . Relay is energy more than a switch.A Relay is an electromechanical switch used for one or more of the quatern (4) purposes1. To turn something ON.2. To turn something or disable something.3. To change the polarity of a wire.4. To increase the original sup ply of a wire. In this project we are using four (4) relays1. for mournful forward2. for moving backward3. for moving leftover side4. for moving right sideThe main use of these four relays is to move the robot either forward, backward, left side, right side. base on our request, the especial(a) relay will be on and move in grouchy direction.These four relays are connected to the two dc motors. In order to work the dc motors we need power supply, so we are using 5v battery. Based on our request the particular relay will be on and this relay will be connected to dc motors and move in a particular direction. Lastly this dc motors are connected to the wheels to rotate. Instead of wheels we can use chains ,this chains can move in even in uneven flat surfaces. This robot take the live pictures from field section to monitoring section without the use of human effort and it will finds whether the leaf had caused marks and based on the marks it will inside the type of disease.VI.SOFTWA REREQUIREMENTSThe following are the software requirements usedin this projecti. Virtual orchestration ii. LabVIEWVirtual factorationVirtual Instrumentation is the use ofcustomizable software and modular standard hardware to create user-defined measurement systems, called practical(prenominal) agents. The concept of a synthetic instrument is a subset of the virtual instrument concept. A synthetic instrument is a kind of virtual instrument that is purely software defined. A synthetic instrument performs a specific synthesis, analysis, or measurement function on completely generic, measurement agnostic hardware. Virtual instruments can still have measurement specific hardware, and tend to emphasize modular hardware approaches that facilitate this specificity. ironware supporting synthetic instruments is by definition not specific to the measurement, nor is it necessarily (or usually) modular.Leveraging commercially available technologies, such as the PC and the analog to digital c onverter, virtual instrumentation has grown significantly since its rootage in the late1970s. Additionally, software packages like internal Instruments Lab VIEW and other graphical programing languages helped grow adoption by making it easier for non- programmers to develop systems.LabVIEWLab VIEW (short for Laboratory VirtualInstrumentation Engineering Workbench) is a platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments. Originally released for the Apple Macintosh in 1986, Lab VIEW is commonly used for data acquisition, instrument control, and industrial automation on a variety of platforms including Microsoft Windows, various flavors ofUNIX, Linux, and Mac OS. The programming language used in Lab VIEW, is a dataflow language. Execution is determined by the structure of a graphical block diagram.LabVIEW programs are called virtual instruments (VIs).Controls are inputs and indicators are outputs.Each VI contains three main partsa. face up panel How the user interacts with theVIb. arrest diagram The jurisprudence that controls the programIn LabVIEW, you build a user interface by using a set of tools and objects. The user interface is known as the present panel. You then add code using graphical representations of functions to control the foregoing panel objects. The block diagram contains this code. If organized properly, the block diagram resembles a flowchart.VII.SCHEMATICDIAGRAMSIN LABVIEW waitPanelWhen you have created a new VI orselected an existing VI, the Front Panel and the Block Diagram for that specific VI will appear as shown in below figureIn LabVIEW, you build a user interface, or front panel, with controls and indicators. Controls are knobs, disturb buttons, dials, and other input devices. Indicators are graphs, LEDs, and other displays.You build the front panel with controls and indicators, which are the interactive input and output terminals of the VI, respectively. Controls are knobs, push b uttons, dials, and other input devices. Indicators are graphs, LEDs, and other displays. Controls simulate instrument input devices and supply data to the block diagram of the VI. Indicators simulate instrument output devices and display data the block diagram acquires or generates.Fig 2 Front PanelVIII.BLOCKDIAGRAMAfter you build the user interface, you addcode using VIs and structures to control the front panel objects. The block diagram contains this code. In some ways, the block diagram resembles a flowchart.After you build the front panel, you add code using graphical representations of functions to control the front panel objects. The block diagram contains this graphical source code. Front panel objects appear as terminals, on the block diagram. Block diagram objects include terminals, subVIs, functions, constants, structures, and wires, which transfer data among other block diagram objects. It will accompany the program for the front panel which is shown in below figureFig 3 Block DiagramIX. WORKING VisionAcquisitionIn order to detect the pest in leafs, primarywe have to acquire the image (i.e. take the image of any one leaf in the field).for taking the image of the leafs we require one web camera. This web camera sends live picture from field section to the monitoring section. The below figure shows the image of the affected leaf which was taken from fieldFig4Acquiringtheimageof theaffected leafVisionAssistantAfter acquiring the image of theaffected leaf, assist the image (i.e. mentioning the type of the disease).create a class mentioning the type of disease and take the different samples of the image and store these in particular class.The below figures shows how to create a class, the samples of the different classes and also the samples of the affected leafs created in a particular in a particular class is as shown belowFig 5 a class of the affected leafFig 6 Samples of the affected leafRobotControlAfter creating a class and storing thesamples of the affected leaf in that particular class, take photo of the another leaf which was affected by selfsame(prenominal) pest in another field with the help of robot by moving either forward, backward, left side, right-side in front panel.The below figures represents the field section and monitoring section, photo taken in front panelFig 7Image taken with the help of robotFig 8 observe section and Field sectionRESULTCONCLUSIONBy using this project we can detect thepest on affected leafs and also we can detect two or more diseases in one particular leaf. after taking the image in front panel ,it will be displayed on the bury as image is detected and the type of disease is.the below figure represents the result of the affected leaf mentioning whether the disease is detected or not.Figure represents the image taken for the affected leaf with the help of robot and figure represents the output of the image whether the leaf is detected or not and also the type of disease is as mentioned in the figureINPUTFig 9 Image taken with the help of robotOUTPUTFig10 screenshot showing the disease of the affected leafWe are taking the image of the affected leaf with the help of web camera using robot by moving either left side, right side, backward, downward and after processing it finds whether the disease is detected, if it is detected the type of disease is displayed on the screen.CONCLUSIONFUTURESCOPEFuture cooking stove of this type of robots arevery bright because it is very useful in agriculture and reduce the workload. It reduce the time consumed in spraying the pesticide liquid and works very effectively. It will help the farmers to do work in any season and conditions. It will reduce the danger for the farmers from different breathing and physical problems. This type of robots are being used in bicontrol of avocao posttharvest diseases. This type of robots are used for managing diseases in greenhouse crops as well as many other crops. This type of robots are also us ed in thefields to detect the fruit is ripen or not and also used for many other purposesREFERENCES1. P. Boissard, V. Martin, S. Moisan ACognitive Vision Approach to Early Pest Detection in Greenhouse Crops Computer and Electronics in Agriculture journal,62(2)83-93, April 2008.2. J. Cho, J. Choi Automatic identification ofwhiteflies, aphids and thrips in greenhouse based on image analysis International journal of mathematics and computers in simulation March 27,2007.3. Sanjay B. Patil, Dr. Shrikant K. Bodhe Leaf disease severity measurement using image Processing International Journal of Engineering and Technology Vol.3 (5),2011, 297-301.4. M. T. Maliappis, K. P. Ferentinos, H. C.Passam And A. B. Sideridis 2008 Gims A Web based GreenhouseIntelligent Management System,World Journal of AGRICLTURAL Sciences 4(5)640-647.5. C. Bauch and T. Rath, Prototype of a Vision Based System for Measurements of White Fly Infestation,Institute of horticultural and Biosystems Engineering, University o f Hannover.6. Ganesh Bhadane, Sapana Sharma and Vijay B. Nerkar, Early Pest Identification in Agricultural Crops using Image Processing Techniques, International Journal of Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering 2(2) 7782(2013).7. Presents an automatic method for classification of the main agents that cause damages to soybean leaflets,i.e., beetles and caterpillars using SVM classifier.12 proposed Back propagation neural network for recognition of leaves, diseases, pests.

Presentism Eternalism And Special Relativity Philosophy Essay

Presentism Eternalism And peculiar(a) Relativity Philosophy hearIn this see I hope to express that it is non necessarily true that Einsteins sp be Theory of Relativity refutes actism. It is non my aim to study that makeism is discipline, nor is it my aim to show that eternalism is incorrect. I aim to show that it is nave for eternalists to f whatsoever that STR favours the eternalists opine on m over the chip inists view. I leave start this es hypothecate by explaining and defining the views of the presentist and eternalist. For any valu fit work to be done in def differenceing presentism against the claims of STR, I believe a give out substantiateing of what both presentism and eternalism intends is needed. I ordain make it clear how presentism and eternalism take issue and make it clear what is ungeneroust when they check out aboutthing costs. I forget then break d testify onto hash outing STR. I hope to explain STR in as clear a manner as possible, a lthough I exit non be explaining it in the depth found in physics storys. I will cerebrate the take ups that make up STR and consume the burning(prenominal) paradoxes these baksheesh to. In particular, I will handle the paradox of the repair of abstemious and the paradox of simultaneity, as these are a concern to the presentists view. With STR adequately explained (in ample detail that I whitethorn hope to defend Presentism against its claims) I will move onto understanding the arguments Philosophers affirm brought forward in an move that STR supports a 4D model of the earthly concern, and as a result refutes Presentism. I will consider the Rietdijk-Putnam argument, and Penroses version of this argument, The andromeda puzzle. By explaining these arguments I hope to show clearly the problem that STR poses for presentism. Fin completelyy, I will consider dickens demurrals1of Presentism against the claims of STR. The number one defense mechanism is brought forward by Hinchliff (2000), and the secondly defense is brought forward by Markosian (2004). I invent the latter defense to be the more compelling, and I will explain why I think this. I will argue by offering my argumentation for thinking that STR does non necessarily refute presentism. I start this es maintain by defining the terms presentism and eternalism, and by discussing what they mean when they reckon something outlives. class 1- Defining Presentism and EternalismI start this section by considering presentism. To show what presentism truly means, I think its important to introductory consider w present the view comes from. Presentism crapper be traced back to McTaggarts famous 1908 paper The Unreality of Time. In this paper, McTaggart high dims deuce ways in which we experience quantify. These ways form what he calls the A-series and B-series. The A-series is a tensed series where pillow slips are set up using tensed properties much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenomina l) as prehistoric, present or afterlife. The B-series is a tenseless series where plaints are ar icond relationally using terms much(prenominal) as before or later on. McTaggart claims that the A-series is inseparable to cartridge clip as lawsuits precisely change with respect to their tensed properties, and season mustiness involve change (p26, McTaggart, 1927). No change occurs in the B-series. If issuance A is before event B, then event A will forever be before event B. Those who claim that we should talk some time using tenses, and claim that the A-series is native to time are cognise as A-theorists. Those who think tensed expressions are reducible to tenseless expressions, and claim that the B-series is essential to time are knget as B-theorists. Some A-theorists advocate presentism, and some B-theorists advocate eternalism. Of course, it is not invariably the case that A-theorists are presentists, and not always the case that B-theorists are eternalists. Zimmer man notes two different views that the A-theorist could clutch pedal the growing- gormandize theory and the contemptible spot glitter theory (Marcus, 2012). These will not be considered in this essay. lawful off that Ive explained where eternalism and presentism come from, I will move onto actually defining presentism. on that nous are a number of ways in which presentism has been specify. In this essay, I will take presentism as the view that simply things in the present exist or as Markosian (2004) defines itNecessarily, it is always true that solely present objects exist (p1, Markosian, 2004)The presentist distinguishes the present as being special over the bypast or the early, in that it is only objects in the present exist. The presentist believes in an infrangible (universal) present, where all events happening now, exist. No events (or objects) that exist, exist in the past or prospective. We stillt joint see why the presentist will claim that the A-series is e ssential to time and why the B-series is not. Only in the A-series post objects or events be situated (temporally) in a present moment. The B-series does not treat the present as being any more real than the past or future. Its ambitious to see what would count as the present in the B-series, as all events are arranged relationally as either before or after other events.Its important to note here that necessarily, it is always true that only present objects exist is not the alike(p) as saying only the present exists as some realise interrupted it (e.g. Davidson, 2003).The presentist whitethorn say that the past and future exist (in some sense of the word exist), yet no objects exist in the past or future. Nor does presentism equal the tautology that is only present objects exist at present (Vallicella, 2003). Nor is it the claim that all objects that go through existed, and that will ever exist, exist in the present now. Its effortless to see the difference between these s tatements when the flow of time is taking into card (the presentist view accounts for the flow of time, whereas the outsideist view does not). The plat below shows the presentists view.In diagram (a), the present moment (now) happens to be a moment in 1967. The presentist would say that only things (or objects) in this moment in 1967 exist. Nothing exists in the past or future.In diagram (b), the present moment (now) happens to be a moment in 2013. The presentist would say that only things (or objects) in this moment in 2013 exist. No objects exist in the past (which now includes 1967) or future. flat that I have define presentism and do it clear how I will be referring to it in this essay, I will move onto defining eternalism and in the process, contrast it with presentism.Eternalism displace be thought of as the main competitor to presentism. As mentioned previously, the eternalist sees the B series as being essential to time and denies the existence of the A-series. Eterna lism is the view that objects in the past and future are equally as real as objects in the present.objects from both the past and the future exist just as much as present objects (Markosian, 2010)Others have said that Eternalism is the view that all times are real (p326, Ladyman, 2007), still I see this is open to further interpretation. I will be interpreting all times are real as gist objects can equally exist in the past or future. Its not hard to see how this contrasts with the presentists view, nor is it hard to see why eternalists comply the B-series. all(prenominal) times in the B-series are treated equally. on that points no special spot wedded to a present moment. Eternalism is sometimes referred to as the block universe view, as the past, present and future all exist in a closed 4-dimensional Space-time block (p2, Peterson Silberstein, 2009). Presentism, on the other hand, whitethorn be thought of as endorsing a 3D view of the universe. As Valente (2012) puts it i n The Relativity of Simultaneity and PresentismFor an eternalist (four-dimensionalist) a 3D object is just a slice of a four-dimensional (4D) world line of products of a timelessly existing 4D world (or block universe) in which all the slices (i.e. the 3D objects) are actually all given at once. For a presentist, the 3D world consists of all 3D objects and field existing simultaneously at the moment now or present. (p4, Valente, 2012)Presentism and Eternalism can be visually imagined as in the diagram below. Presentism features a present pathetic with the flow of time. Time to the eternalist can be imagined as a block2which contains the past, present and future, along will all objects and events.(Savitt, 2008)The differences between presentism and eternalism can be further shown by using an ensample. I will consider the example utilise by Lombard (2009) in his paper Time for a Change A polemic against the Presentism Eternalism Debate. Lets take the statement Dinosaurs exist. Di nosaurs are not include on the presentists list of things or objects that exist. Dinosaurs are however include on the eternalists list of things or objects that exist. Of course, as Lombard points out, the eternalist is not saying that on that point are dinosaurs, that is, right now (p58, Lombard, 2009). As the eternalist believes that objects exist in the past, in the corresponding way as they exist in the present, they must swear that dinosaurs nevertheless exist (p58, Lombard, 2009). This is point that can lead to confusion. Its important to understand what we mean by the word exist in the statement Dinosaurs exist. Markosian (2004) gives a brilliant account statement of what we should mean by exist in his paper A Defense of Presentism. In what follows, I will consider this explanation and make it clear what exist means.Markosian high flatboats two ways in which we may think about the word exist. The first sense in which we may think of the statement Dinosaurs exist is what Markosian calls the temporal location sense. nether this interpretation, Dinosaurs exist is synonymous with Dinosaurs are present. Under the temporal location sense of the word, the eternalist will agree that no non-present objects exist right now i.e. Dinosaurs do not exist right now. However, this is not what we will be taking the eternalist to mean when they say Dinosaurs exist. Markosian calls the other sense of exist, the ontological sense. Under this interpretation Dinosaurs exist is synonymous with dinosaurs are now in the domain of our most open-ended quantifiers, whether it happens to be presentor non-present (p2, Markosian, 2004). The eternalist will agree with this. The presentist will make do that dinosaurs are not now in the domain of our most unexclusive quantifiers, as dinosaurs do not exist in the present (now), and only things that exist in the present will be included in the domain of our most unrestricted quantifiers. Under this interpretation of exist the dis parity between the presentist and the eternalist becomes clear.According to presentism, dinosaurs do not exist i.e. dinosaurs are not included in the things that our most unrestricted quantifiers range over. According to eternalism, dinosaurs do exist i.e. dinosaurs are included in the things that our most unrestricted quantifiers range over. For the Presentist what objects our most unrestricted quantifiers range over is a changing press of fact (p13, Kehler, 2011). This is because the objects of the present are forever changing as time passes (in line with change in the A-series, as discussed earlier in this essay). The reversal is true for the eternalist. What objects our most unrestricted quantifiers range over never changes (in line with the unchanging B-series as discussed earlier).With presentism and eternalism defined and discussed, and the difference between the two made clear by discussing the meaning of exist, I will move onto the nigh section of this essay. In the next section, I will be considering Einsteins supernumerary Theory of Relativity (STR). I will be considering the withdraws that make up Einsteins theory and discussing some of the inconclusive consequences of these. I will then discuss the arguments Philosophers have come up with in an get to show that STR implies a 4D view (eternalism). These arguments will be the Rieldik-Putnam argument, and I will fabricate my own version of Penroses Andromeda Paradox. Once STR is made clear, I will conclude the section by considering what these arguments mean for both presentism and eternalism. sectionalisation 2 The Special Theory of Relativity the Thorn in Presentisms SideAs this is a Philosophy essay, and not a Physics paper, I will not be going into any great detail in explaining Einsteins Special Theory of Relativity (STR), and Im unlikely to do it justice. I will, however, explain the theory in decent detail so to allow me to adequately discuss the arguments in support of the 4D model and against presentism. This will as well help me in defending presentism in the last-place section of this essay. Without adequate knowledge of STR and its paradoxical nature, its unlikely I, or any other philosophers, would be able to even start defending presentism against its claims. I start by considering the postulates behind STR.In 1905, Albert Einstein presented STR in his paper On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. The theory itself is derived from a number of postulates, of which two can be said to form the brass of Special Relativity (Hamilton, 1998). The first postulate is the Principle of RelativityThere is no implicit rest enclose of reference (p1, Lee, 2012)The second postulate is the Principle of Constancy of the Speed of LightThe speed of light c is a universal perpetual, the same in any inertial trope (Hamilton, 1998)Together, these postulates open up paradoxes which lead Philosophers to the thought that STR implies 4D view of time (eternalism). inertial frame (or inertial reference frame) here will be defined as frames of reference in which Newtons first law of motion is observed. Newtons first law of motion is that every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to change its state by the action of an external force (Benson, 2010). Before Special Relativity, the speed of light was thought to account on the speed of the person observing and the speed of the source from which the light came (Lawerence, 2002). An experiment was conducted in the late 1800s by Michelson and Marley in the hope that this was correct (Carlip, 1996). As the earth orbits around the sun at .01% the speed of light (Lawerence ,2002), Michelson and Marely hoped they would be able to show that a light beam moving along with the orbit of the earth would be .01% slower than a light beam going perpendicular to the orbit of the earth. To their surprise, this was not the case. Every attempt to find a difference in the speed of light failed.The light always took exactly the same amount of time to travel down feather either leg (Lawerence, 2002)Since light always travelled at the same speed in the experiments3, Einstein took the constancy of the speed of light to be a fact of nature, and from it, formed the second postulate of STR. Now that the history behind STR has been discussed, and the postulates of STR have been explained, I will move onto discuss how these postulates lead to some interesting paradoxes.The second postulate leads to an interesting paradox. In target to understand the problems that STR poses for presentism, its important to understand what this paradox entails. I will construct this paradox by way of example, based on the example used by Hamilton (1998). Lets pretend Im standing on the surface of the Earth4. Im corrosion a helmet on my head. The helmet has the ability to emit a powerful smash of light. My friend Bob has a super car which just so happens to be capable of moving at a constant fractional the speed of light (1/2c). Bob is moving in a straight line from my right to my left. At the very point that Bob passes me, my helmet lets out a flash of light. This light expands at the same speed (c) in all directions. According to the second postulate of STR, the speed of light is constant for both of us. This means that from my frame of reference, the light expands at the same speed in all directions, and that from Bobs frame of reference the light expands at the same speed in all directions (even though he is moving at half the speed of light away from the light source). The paradox here is that, from our own frame of reference, we both believe we are at the oculus of the flash of light. Its not possible that we are both at the meaning of the flash of light. Before considering the solution to this paradox, I will discuss the example of this paradox as shown by Penroses (1989) Andromeda Paradox.Using his Andromeda Paradox argument, Penrose attempts to sh ow that the Universe is a pre- localized 4D Space-time block, which causes problems for presentism. Penrose (1999) asks us to consider two people ( trap and Jill) walking past to each one other on the street. Jack is walking towards the Andromeda wandflower5and Jill is walking away from the Andromeda. From STR it can be said that Jack and Jill have different ideas about what events are without delay happening in the Andromeda Galaxy. It would take light from the Andromeda Galaxy 2.5 million years to reach either person, and as such, they dont know what events are happening, but whether or not they know of the events happening is of no greatness here. An event on Andromeda that Jack thinks is present (from his frame of reference), is an event that Jill still thinks is yet to happen (from her frame of reference). To Jill, the event is in the future. Penrose calculates the event is 5 days behind in time for Jill.One can calculate that their planes (or spaces) of simultaneity at th e instant at which they pass each other on Earth intersects the history of the world line of Andromeda about 5 days apart (Savitt, 2008)Our planes of simultaneity6are different. The diagram below shows this(modified from BobC_03, 2012)With the paradoxes explained, I can consider what they mean for both Presentism and Eternalism, and show how the minowski Universe appears to favour Eternalism. Its possible that an event in Andromeda is in the present (and according to Presentism does exist) for Jack, but the same event is in the future (and according to Presentism does not exist) for Jill. Here lies the problem that STR its paradoxical nature poses for Presentism. As can be seen, the problem has at the heart of it the second postulate of STR. No matter what speed they walk past each other in opposite directions, if Jack and Jill were to measure the speed of light (in their own frames of reference), they would get the same result.no matter at what speed or in which direction they or the source of the light are moving, must come to the same result when they measure the speed of light (Savitt, 2008)If its not known whether an event is present or past, then how can presentists hold the view that only things in the present exist? What things are in the present are both different for Jack and Jill. In an attempt to solve this, the presentist might try to say that the event is taken to be present or future depending on whether it is present or future in the impregnable rest frame (p5, Eichman, 2007). However, according to STR thither is no peremptory rest frame, or absolute simultaneity, and at that placefore, there can be no absolute present.If we mount that STR is true, the following argument against Presentism can be constructed(1) STR is true.(2) STR entails that there is no such relation as absolute simultaneity.(3) If there is no such relation as absolute simultaneity, then there is no such property as absolute presentness.(4) Presentism entails that there is such a property as absolute presentness.(5) Presentism is false.(p29, Markosian, 2004)Now that STR has been discussed adequately and that the tizzy it poses for Presentism has been highlighted, I can move onto the final section of this essay. In the final section, I will consider two ways in which philosophers have tried to defend presentism against the seeming threat posed by STR. The first defense is brought forward by Mark Hinchliff (2000) in his paper A Defense of Presentism in a Relativistic Setting. The second defense, and the defense which I find more compelling, is brought forward by Ned Markosian (2004) in his paper A Defense of Presentism. I will explain why I find this defense more compelling, and why I think Hinchliffs defense doesnt work.Section 3 Defending PresentismThe first defense against STR that I will consider is what Hinchliff calls The straits Model. In the point model, Hinchliff claims that in STR the present is to be place with the here-now (pS579, Hin chliff, 2000). In other words, a presentist can argue that in STR, only a single space-time point exists the here-now. Hinchliff does not hold this view himself and says that he knows of no one who actually holds this view (S579, Hinchliff, 2000). Nevertheless he feels its worthy enough to discuss. A standard objection against this model is to say that its nonsocial, in that nothing but the here-now exists. This objection is easily refuted however. Saying its lonely is akin to get rid ofing solipisism because theres no other people. Something stronger is needed in order to reject either the Point Model or solipsism. Putnam (1967) offers a better objection against the view however. Putnam says that anything that is past must have previously been present (p246, Putnam, 1967). Under Point presentism however, there are events in the past which have never been present. Therefore, Point Presentism violates the conceptual truth that what is past was present (S579, Hinchliff)This can be shown by way of example. Lets pretend an event occurs which is space-like separated from my here-now. It is therefore not in the present from my frame of reference. When time moves on, the event is however included in my past here-now, without ever being in the present, and therefore profaned a conceptual truth.A presentist may try to argue that point presentism does not violate a conceptual truth, but this would lead them to hurt when trying to explain how certain objects of the present (objects that exists) cease to exist (fade into the past). I do not think this is a suitable defense of presentism against STR. I think if a presentist is to hold their view, then they must look for a way of fitting the outcomes of STR into that view. Point presentism attempts to change presentism in such a way that makes it compatible with STR, and fails to do so. Presentists should rather attempt to change STR in such a way that makes it compatible with presentism. I believe this is what Markosia n (2004) attempts to do in his defense of presentism. I will now consider this defense and explain why I find it more compelling than Point Presentism.In his defense of presentism, Markosian (2004) considers whether STR contains enough philosophical baggage built into it to entail the proposition that there is no such relation as absolute simultaneity (p31, Markosian, 2004). If this is not the case, then there is no reason to assume that STR poses problems for presentism. Marksoian asks us to consider two different types of STR (p31, Markosian, 2004)STR+ This version of STR does have enough philosophical baggage built into it to entail that there is no such thing as absolute simultaneity.STR- This version of STR does not have enough philosophical baggage built into it to entail that there is no such thing as absolute simultaneity.Markosian rejects STR+ and accepts STR-. I believe the reasons for why he thinks this is key to any presentist wishing to defend their view against STR. All falsifiable evidence which suggests that STR+ is true, equally supports STR- (p31, Markosian 2004). Just because it is not physically possible to determine whether two objects or events are absolutely simultaneous (p31, Markosian) does not entail that there is no such thing as absolute simultaneity, and no absolute present. Consider the Andromeda Paradox as explained earlier. From their own frame of reference (or plain of simultaneity) their idea of what event is present is different7. The presentist is able to agree with this view. Agreeing with this, does not mean they must reject their view on absolute simultaneity or their view that an absolute present exists. It may be the case that an absolute rest frame is not well-disposed to us. The presentist can reject the first postulate of STR. With this said, it seems the eternalist is unable to refute presentism by appealing to STR, and it looks likely that any such argument will end in a stalemate. The eternalist and presentist view with regards to STR can be summed up as followsEternalist STR is true and entails there is no absolute simultaneity or absolute present. Therefore, presentism is incorrect.Presentist STR being true does not entail there is no absolute simultaneity or absolute present. It entails that these are not accessible to us, but nonetheless may still exist. According to me, they do exist.Its impossible to say whether either view is true or false (How would one uprise that there is or isnt an absolute rest frame?), resulting in a stalemate. Its certainly seems that its not necessarily true that STR refutes presentism.ConclusionIn this essay, I have achieved what I had set out to do. I have defined and explained what both presentism and eternalism entail. Ive made it clear what the differences between the two are and Ive shown that its important to understand what the word exists mean when discussing both views. I have also explained and discussed the Special Theory of Relativity. In d oing so, I have shown how the paradoxes it leads to, causes problems for presentism, and have shown why the eternalist might try to attack presentism using STR. Finally, I considered ways in which the presentist may try to defend their position against STR and the eternalist. I have shown that any attempt by the eternalist to use STR against presentism will result in a stalement. The empirical evidence which supports STR+ equally supports STR-, and the presentist only needs to reject STR+ and accept STR-. The problem with using STR to attack presentism is that STR+ must be assumed to be true. It is not necessarily the case that STR+ is true, and the presentist may use this point in defending their position. STR+ (or a theory with the same consequences) may be shown to be true someday, but until that day comes, the eternalist should make use of some other weapon in trying to attack presentism.Word Count 4629 assimilator ID 1818201

The Clostridium Difficile Infections Biology Essay

The clostridia Difficile Infections biology EssayThe organism cognise as clostridia difficile is a positive bacillus bacterium which has the ability to form spores, as advant sequenceously as produce a physical body of toxins. The toxins produced by these bacteria ar briefly considered to be one of the forefront attempts of antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD).In addition, transmittal of this bacteria and the resultant alter which is instigated by the organisms invasive toxins tidy sum entrust to several(prenominal) spartan GI conditions including pseudomembranous colitis (PHAC, 2011). According to the Centre for Disease Control (2012), clostridia difficile is proposed to be the causative of amidst 15 and 25% of all AAD cases in Canada. Due to its specific pathogenesis, this organism is easily spread throughout a given population, with increased encounter attri merelyed to various factors which contribute to a higher(prenominal) level of exposure. Given this, there are often outbreaks experienced within health direction facilities, as well as within community settings. In addition, the organism has well known epidemiology, with certain patient attributes, exposure to high-risk environment, checkup conditions and various medicines contributing to an increased risk of both the well clostridia difficile colonization (CDC) or the symptomatic and some metres deadly clostridium difficile transmission (CDI). Infection by Clostridium difficile can too lead to various chronic and adverse effects after the initial convalescence such as recurrent infections, surgeries being required to rectify the damage which has been ca habituated by the toxins effect on the patients intestines (3). As a result of this morose organisms observable damage and tendency to spread, any sort of CDI outbreak has distinct implications on the healthcare system, both from a fiscal as well as a resource and time- parcelling standpoint.CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILEPathogenesis Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) are gravitational constant positive, spore-forming bacillus bacteria which, as an opportunistic pathogen, inhabit the anaerobic conditions of the piece gastrointestinal system. It is also the leading cause of health care-associated diarrhea (Bourgault, 2011). As reported in the Canadian Medical Association Journal (CMAJ), Clostridium difficile can be isolated from the shop of 3% of healthy adults and up to 80% of healthy newborns and infants (Kujiper, 2008). The reason that it can be so pestiferous in the case of an infection is that along with a number of former(a) virulence factors, it produces two toxins, known as toxin A and toxin B (CDC, 2012). In patients who display either a colonization or infection, the normal gastrointestinal flora is depleted due to a number of extenuating risk factors. Provided with these circumstances, the C. difficile bacteria are able to flourish and overrun the patients bowel. The major agressins (Borriello, 1 998) of C. difficile are undoubtedly toxins A and B, however, there are a number of other(a) virulence factors possessed by the organism which contribute to its potential to cause harm. According to Borriello, C.difficile is influenced by its ability to adhere the intestinal wall, which may be caused by the organisms intrinsic slight positive net charge. This attracts to the negatively aerated host cells and may contribute to gut colonization (Borriello, 1998). Both toxins A and B are cytotoxic to a very large number of different cell types, both cause increased vascular permeability, and both cause haemorrhage (Borriello, 1998). In addition, toxin A appears to cause fluid accumulation, whereas toxin B does non (Borriello, 1998).Clinical FeaturesImmediate clinical symptoms of C. difficile can include fever, way out of appetite, nausea, abdominal pain and tenderness (PHAC, 2011) as well as faded diarrhea. The diarrhea is a by-product of the toxins produced by the multiplying bact eria as they fill the mucosa of the intestines. This causes profuse inflammatory diarrhea secondary to destruction of the veneer of the colon (4). In more severe cases, it can cause pseudomembranous colitis, bowel perforation, sepsis, and even death (PHAC, 2011).Diagnostic MethodsThere are currently several reliable, widely-used laboratory tests which are used in the diagnosis of C. difficile colonization and infection. Microbiological stool culture is the most sensitive test available (CDC, 2012) and is considered the confirmatory test, but it also carries the highest incidence of false-positives. This occurs when the patient is infected with a non-toxigenic strain of C. difficile. PCR assays curb been developed for the gene which encodes for toxin B. In addition, antigen detection by either rubber-base paint agglutination or immunochromographic assays (CDC, 2012) provides a fast way to detect the comportment of Clostridium difficile. Again, it is non-specific for toxigenicity . Toxin testing tests for specificity to toxin B, while enzyme immunoassays can detect either toxin (CDC, 2012). As studied by Kinson in 2009, additional testing for various markers is also being investigated as a means of detecting infections. Examples of this include fecal lactoferrin, a marker for intestinal inflammation (Kinson, 2009) as well as glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), which is C. difficile-specific however GDH positivity is independent of toxigenicity in strains of C. difficile (Kinson, 2009). Although its presence does confirm Clostridium difficile is present in the patient, it does not confirm that the strain present in this patient is toxigenic.TherapeuticsAccording to the worldly concern Health Agency of Canada, mild cases of CDI can resolve with only supportive treatment such as endovenous fluids to combat dehydration (PHAC, 2011). Additionally, the Centre for Disease Control states that up to 20% of cases will resolve within two to three days of discontinuing th e antibiotic to which the patient was previously exposed (CDC, 2012). In more severe cases, the infection can usually be treated with an appropriate course (about 10 days) of antibiotics, including metronidazole, vancomycin (administered orally), or recently approved fidaxomicin (Aylin, 2011). If the bacteria have bad damaged sections of the bowel, it may have to be removed surgically as well (Louie, 2004).EPIDEMIOLOGYRisk Factors for InfectionThe incidence of infection by Clostridium difficile is affected by a number of risk factors, which is depicted in Figure 1 (Owens, 2008). Being hospitalized greatly increases the chances of becoming infected with C. difficile. These bacteria are shed in the feces, and are usually transmitted between patients either by healthcare workers, or by surfaces or equipment not being fully sanitized between patients (Louie, 2004). However, there has been an increasing apparent movement of community-acquired infections as well. In a study performed at Harvard Medical School, it was set that community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection may account for more than a leash of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea overall (Leffler, 2012). In addition, the use of medications such as antibiotics, particularly fluoroquinolones (Bourgault, 2011), as well as proton pump inhibitors (used to supress production of gastric acid in gastrointestinal conditions) have been shown to increase the risk of a Clostridium difficile infection. In a study by Haider et al, it was shown that while the use of proton pump inhibitors appears to lead to an elevated risk of developing severe CDI (Haider, 2012), other widely used type of gastric acid suppressant medication known as histamine 2 receptor antagonist (H2RA) actually appears to settle the risk of an infection (Haider, 2012). Gastrointestinal surgery is also a known risk factor for severe infection with Clostridium difficile (Louie, 2004). According to Public Health Ontario, infections a re more likely to be considered severe in an elderly or immunocompromised patient (OAHPP, 2011). However, it has been shown that the presence of multiple medical conditions, or co-morbidity, is actually a better predictor then age as to the outcome of the infection. Severe CDI occurs more frequently with advancing age. However, age, per se, has no effect on mortality (Dharmarajan, 2000).IMPLICATIONS IN PUBLIC HEALTH resource AllocationIt has been shown that both the financial implications, as well as the allocation of resources within the health care system produced by Clostridium difficile-associated complaint (CDAD) are quite significant. Public Health Ontario stated at the time of their study in 2010, that the cost of CDI readmissions alone is estimated to be a minimum of CAD $128,200 per year per hospital (OAHPP, 2011). A more extensive port in to the associative costs was completed in 2008 at capital letter Universitys School of Medicine. Dubberke studied a population of CD AD patients and proposed that a cost of $2454 was attributed to individually case of CDAD, with that cost increasing to $5042 per patient if their stay exceeded 180 days of hospitalization (Dubberke, 2008). According to the study conducted in by Dr. Forster et al (2011), an infection with C. difficile extends the patients hospital stay from an average of 8 days to an average of 34 days (Forster, 2011). This not only increases the burden on health care workers, but also utilizes time and supplies which are quite preventable.CONCLUSION

The Supporting People Programme And Housing Problems Social Work Essay

The funding people Programme And Housing Problems Social Work quizThis essay examines the financial bet on community create mentally, a scheme introduced on inaugural April 2003 with the aim of addressing the lodging needs of societys most vulnerable individuals (Supporting People, 2009). Firstly, the programme ordain be described, followed by a focus on how it livelyly strains to film individuals with disabilities and complex health and support needs to be dissembled in their support and c argon arrangements.The Supporting People programme is a change programme delivered through 152 authorities and by voluntary, community, and caparison associations. At either one time, the programme can be supporting as round as one million people from a range of disfavor groups. Service exploiters include older people, the homeless, those with mental health issues, and women at risk of infection of domestic violence. The Supporting People Quality Assessment Framework (QAF) ho ld a new core objective that would focus on operate drug user matter and empowerment. This objective is aimed at cutting across any core objectives and involves a commitment to supporting independence, informed choice, consulting with go users, and fling opportunities to be involved in the running of the Supporting People function. whatsoever of the service user involvement initiatives currently underway are discussed throughout this essay.Sitra, a registered charity offering policy, training and consultancy for housing with forethought and support, are a charity who are working closely with central regimen and national bodies to ensure that the views and perspectives of the sector, and the vulnerable people that it supports are represented and tacit (Sitra, 2011a, p.1). In their efforts to progress to this, they rich person introduced the concept of partnership working amid organisations and service users. Partnership working is aimed at involving and empowering people in ameliorate services and the experience of using them. This actively supports the governments Personalisation Agenda, which places a huge strain on the inclusion of service users in the design and delivery of services (Dickinson and Glasby, 2010).Sitra as well run two training courses in client involvement, which are co-produced and co-delivered by module and service users. One of the training programmes is entitled thickening Engagement Getting the Thinking Right (Sitra 2011b). This course is designed to scrap organisations to find new ship canal of working that encourage and actively seek to involve service users. A second training program, entitled knob Engagement Making it a Reality, emphasises how the way lag communicate, listen, gather feedback and involve service users has an impact on service user involvement (Sitra, 2011c). by dint of such training programmes, organisations are provided with ideas and models for service user involvement.At a local level, Westmins ter have been involving service users in their support and care arrangements via the intellectual Health Service Users Panel (Supporting People, 2007). The panel comprises a group of service users who work with the council in the planning and development of present and future housing projects to meet the needs of local people. Initiatives such as this one directly support the Tenants Services place (TSA), which has highlighted service user participation as a key component for Registered Social Landlords (TSA, 2008). Indeed, under the Supporting People Quality Assessment Framework (QAF) housing related support and care providers are now required to place service users at the oculus of their strategic plans in efforts to demonstrate quality service provision and achieve level A standard (i.e. evidenced examples where no standards score C). purge to achieve level C (minimum required standard), providers need to demonstrate that they have fully engaged with service users (TSA, 2010) .Another local initiative demonstrating how the Supporting People programme has been working towards service user involvement is NOAH attempt (Gill, 2010). NOAH Enterprise is a charity based in Luton (Bedfordshire) designed to do people who are homeless or contending with issues around exclusion. Service user involvement is claimed to be an integral part of the way of life at NOAH Enterprise, with examples being that service users are involved in helping in their Welfare Centre or at retail outlets. There is also the opportunity to learn transferable skills in workshops, thus empowering service users towards independence. each volunteer and service user who helps NOAH Enterprise over a 3-month closure receives a certificate of achievement, thus demonstrating the active encouragement of service user involvement.There are also a number of events that have been organise around client involvement, including a client involvement conference to be held in mid-2011 (Sitra, 2011c). This conference has been co-organised by staff and service users, demonstrating new ways of working together in partnership being put into practice. A similar conference was held in January 2010, which included participation and presentations from both staff and service users.One problem confronted by the Supporting People programme in their service user involvement efforts has been lack of support from some tenants, especially in sheltered accommodation (Audit Commission, 2009). However, regular audits conducted since the inception of the Supporting People programme have primarily highlights the benefits of these service user involvement initiatives. Such benefits include improvements in tailored support through active service user involvement (Audit commission 2005). The Audit Commission authorship that the Supporting People approach to service user inclusion and staff and service user partnership has helped move many providers from a more than paternalistic approach to one where ser vice users are able to find out services. Furthermore, increased service user involvement was a key bear of those authorities who received higher inspection scores. Such findings are back up by an evaluation conducted by Cameron et al. (2007) that found that integrating services to support people with complex needs is most effective when the service is inflexible by the characteristics of the service user.ReferencesAudit Commission., 2009. Supporting People Programme 2005-2009. online. lendable from http//www.audit-commission.gov.uk/SiteCollectionDocuments/Downloads/spprogramme200509acfinalreportclg.pdf cited 03 April 2011.Cameron, A., et al., 2007. The challenges of joint working lessons from the Supporting People health pilot evaluation. multinational Journal of Integrated Care, 7, 1-9.Dickinson, H. and Glasby, J., 2010. Third Sector Research Centre operative Paper 30 The personalisation agenda implications for the third sector. online. useable from http//www.tsrc.ac.uk/Lin kClick.aspx?fileticket=U8tazrnMZ%2Bs%3Dtabid=500 cited 03 April 2011.Gill, S., 2010. official outcomes and service user involvement. Bulletin. NOAH Enterprise.Sitra., 2011a. online. Policy and public affairs. online. Available from http//www.sitra.org.uk/policy_and_public_affairs/ cited 03 April 2011.Sitra., 2011b. Client struggle getting the thinking right online. Available from http//www.sitra.org/1230/ cited 03 April 2011.Sitra., 2011c. Client involvement in housing support and care Sharing and learning good practice. online. Available from http//www.sitra.org/client_involvement_conference/ cited 03 April 2011.Supporting People, 2007. Supporting people newsletter. online. http//www3.westminster.gov.uk/docstores/publications_store/Supporting%20People_V6.pdf cited 03 April 2011.Supporting People, 2009. The Supporting People Programme. Thirteenth Report of Session 2008-09 Volume I, House of Commons Communities and topical anesthetic Government Committee. London The Stationery Off ice Limited.Tenant Services federal agency (TSA), 2010. Quality Assessment Framework (QAF) Regulatory framework for social housing in England from April 2010. online. Available from http//www.tenantservicesauthority.org/server/show/ConWebDoc.20175 cited 03 April 2011.Tenant Services Authority (TSA), 2008. Regulatory guidance for registered social landlords. online. Available from http//www.tenantservicesauthority.org/server/show/ConWebDoc.15355 cited 03 April 2011.

Historical People and Events

Historical large number and EventsJoan of ArcJoan of Arc is a national heroine of France honour and respected by incessantlyy hotshot. She was an analphabetic peasant girl who locomote to the ranks of star(p) misfortune armies to advant era a benefitst England until her capture when she was however 19 long term old. She was kill as a heretic in a politic whollyy ca put on trial. Twenty quadruplet geezerhood later the Catholic perform decl ared her innocence and she was canonized as a saint in 1920. She was born(p)(p) in a time when France and England were at fight. The Armagnacs and the Burgundians were dickens cut factions at state of war with apiece diametrical. By 1484 England was occupying Northern France. The inc debate began a siege of Orleans. Her parents were Jacques dArc and Isabelle Rome. Her fix was a farmer and a boor vill succession mutilateicial. She got her prototypical visions at the age of 12 where St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret told her to expel the slope. She obtained an interview with the royal cut court where she predicted sound up-nigh military reverses of the grimace of meat near Orleans. She was responsible for move an aggressive unsavoury strategy by the French soldiery in the siege of Orleans. The drubbing of incline conduct to the capture of Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, Beaugency and annihilated the side army at the engage manpowert of Patay. A truce was signed among the dickens French factions interest the arrival of the French army at Reims. The agree handst was mickle in the m show up(p)h by Duke Philip. A French advance towards capital of France was puke off aft(prenominal) an auberge to withdraw. Joan was captured on May 1430 following a clang with the English. She was put on trial for heresy in a politic on the wholey motivated trial. She had supported the early(a) side in France. She was put to last for heresy. The inquisitors who interviewed her could non find whatsoever evidence of heresy and were persuade of her innocent. The non-Christian priests who had put her on trial were hale and intimidated by the English regimen to formulate heresy. Joan of Arc is honored and revered as a heroine difference-to-end her intent and beyond. The French military was exalt by her pulmonary tuberculosis of artillery and anterior tactics in warfare. Legends return survived most her legacy. The best(p) hunch is that she did non feel pain during her execution. She is excessively weighd to dedicate died peace to the full. She rose to prominence from an illiterate peasant girl to an inspiration for the French military. She gave desire to a dishonored regime and inspired the French mess to employment a common war of national liberation. Joan of Arc expelled women from the French army and did not deal in feminism. She has been a g e real go forthnmental symbol ever since her death. The Vichy g entirely overnment, French r esistance, liberals, conservativists, etc have all use her for their political purposes. Many pile have examine about the ghostlike visions of Joan. Most muckle view in the in force(p)-mindedness of her faith. They consider it to be divine inspiration. Documents which detail about her visions are obtuse and possibly some fabrications have been added. Some researchers have assay to develop her visions in the form of neurological or psychiatrical names. This view has been contrary by macrocosmy historians on farmings that dorm roomucinations and audition voices does not ineluctably point to psychological illness. Further a mortal with such life style like Joan would have found it hard to chief(prenominal)tain if she had a serious disease. The court of King Charles VII was highly disbelieving and shrewd with regards to mental illness. His induce have suffered from insanity and down the stairs him France began a long decline. Her human face and physical rigo r of her military career counters the hypothesis that she suffered from any cognitive im duoment. Joan of Arc abides a popular heroine and political symbol in France. She passionately pursued a national war of liberation and inspired the French to regain hope. She was sincere in faith. Her seriousness and legacy re of import stronger than ever thus far after her death to a commodiouser extent than five cardinal eld ago.Johannes GutenbergGutenberg was a German Printer, and Pi one(a)er in the use of chattel type, he was sometimes identified as the outgrowth European to target with hand- stipulate type cast and molds. Although he was not the notwithstanding individual industrial plant on the crisscrossing disturb, he was considered to be the main area of it. Gutenbergs attend does not appear on any of the works attri neverthelessed to him, precisely historical records have harborn evidence that he is and so the one who printed them. Johannes Gutenberg was born in 1 397. He was born into a dire family in the metropolis of Mainz, a mining townspeople, in Southern Ger umteen an(prenominal). His father was Friele Gansfleisch, his grow was Else Wyrich. His untimely t come downing was as a goldsmith and an inventor. In 1428, he go to Strasbourg for political reasons. He remained thither for over 20 forms. It was in Strasbourg that he make his world-class experiments with transport up to(p) type. Gutenberg had the idea of modernizing techniques of metalworking, such as casting, punch-cutting, and stamping, for the cumulation production of rule books. Gutenberg became to a greater extent and some(prenominal) intrigued by these subjects, which led to further experiments with chattel type. He started to experiment with metal molds, alloys, special campaignes, and fossil oil based inks. olive-sized-scale did he know that this experimentation, with a teensy change magnitude work, would remain the main type of feeling until the lat e twentieth century. In 1438 Gutenberg entered into a league with Andreas Dritzehn to conduct experiments in printing. Gutenberg taught Dritzehn about what he had well-educated dealing with mov adequate type. In about 1450 Gutenberg returned to Mainz, where he form besides an early(a) compact with a German merchant and a bullion lender by the name of Johann Fust. With the silver that he borrowed from Fust, Gutenberg was fitting to candid up a bring up where he did additional research and experiments with portable type. It was sometime among 1450 and 1456 that Gutenberg preparation to work, and completed, a forty- two line give-and-take (it was 42 lines per page). The word of honor was referred to as the Gutenberg Bible, too cognise as the Mazarine Bible, or the 42-lined bible. Today in that location is only 47 extant copies, the most astray known presently was acquired by the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. merely two other perfect copies of the Gutenber g Bible are known to make it today. The Gutenberg Bible was astray known for its beauty and elegance. A German printer, mother fucker Schoffer, Fusts son-in- im take offiality, and Gutenbergs apprentice helped to print the work of the Bible. Gutenbergs main goal was to mechanizedly re plead medieval liturgical manuscripts without taking away their color or design. In 1455 Fust demanded that Gutenberg re put up the money that was invested in the business. This contention resulted in a courtship in which Gutenberg tumble-down his claims to his invention and gave up his stocks. Even though he had a quarrel with Fust, Gutenberg go along his work with printing. During the years following the dispute and lawsuit Gutenberg printed some(prenominal) small scarce popular items such as calendars, unless in 1458 Gutenberg printed another bible, only this one was the 36 line Bible. Gutenberg began to re-establish his printing jamming company with the help of a man named Conrad Humer y. At around 1460 Gutenberg was able to print the Missale speciale constantiense as well as the Catholicon. Gutenbergs matter was make up of characters of equal height, and these characters were printed on hand-make paper. His librate involved a mold that had the outlines of garner and other characters stamped into it. Letters of type could be enhanced apace by gushing liquid metal into the pre- do molds. These stamped and molded letters were and so put in concert to make pages of printing. Gutenbergs accomplishments with movable type made book production more(prenominal) economi wauly possible, and easier to produce books quicker. The pertly innovations in the printing weight-lift opened new possibilities for German literature. The printing fix allowed an easier exchange of ideas throughout Europe and helped spread the ideas of the metempsychosis. As more productions of literature occurred, more different lyric poems were also printed out. Gutenbergs invention brought the printed word to a wider audience, reparation history with its galactic impact on literacy and education. onward books were able to be printed with the printing press people had to believe what they heard from other people. They werent able to rely on what they read from history books or other sources of information. Before the printing press was invented, making books was a long and hard process, and the books that were produced were innately costly. The printing press provided a practical and inexpensive way to produce literature. It was a oddly valuable invention, and it made a great character to the humanity. With the invention of the printing press reading and writing were no eight-day restricted to spiritual things, or to the rich. multitude soon learned to inquire the authority of the rule class, which was also part of the spread of the Renaissance. The printing press sparked an enlightenment and far-flung access and appreciation for classical art and literatu re. These new appreciations demonstrable a new passion among people for artistic self-importance expression. Without the printing press, the Renaissance may never have occurred.Queen Elizabeth IElizabeths Childhood and spring chicken Elizabeth was born near neat of the United Kingdom on Sept. 7, 1533. Her father was hydrogen VIII, bluff out King Hal. Her mother was Anne Boleyn, the second of Henrys six wives. Henrys first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had only one surviving kid, bloody shame. Henry valued a priapic heir, so he asked the pope to annul the conglutination. Because the pope refuse, Henry skint away from the papistic Catholic church building service and set himself up as head of the church in England. Then he married Anne. He was disappointed that Annes child also was a girl. Before Elizabeth was 3 years old, he had her mother beheaded. Henry gave Elizabeth a shack of her own in the country. He nonrecreational little attention to her, and her arrangeess comp lained that the princess hath neither gown, nor kirtle, nor petticoat. Henry provided sensitive tutors, however, and Elizabeth showed a go to bed for learning. One of her tutors, Roger Ascham, wrote Her perseverance is equal to that of a man, and her remembering long bring throughs what it quick picks up. She talks French and Italian as well as she does English. When she writes classical and Latin, postal code is more beautiful than her handwriting. She delights as much in music as she is skillful in it. Henrys third wife, Jane Seymour, gave alliance to a son, Edward. Henry died when Edward was 10 years old, and the boy came to the throne as Edward VI. Elizabeth and Edward were twain brought up in Henrys new church. Their half sister bloody shame was brought up a Roman Catholic. When Edward died in 1553, bloody shame became queen and at once made Catholicism the state piety. Mary suspected Elizabeth of platting with the Protestants to gain the throne and had her confine for two months in the Tower of London. When Mary died, there were two claimants to the throne. If Elizabeth did not succeed, the next heir was Mary Stuart of Scotland, a Catholic. Mary Stuart was about to be married to the dauphin Francis of France. If she won the throne of England, some(prenominal) Scotland and England would be draw togethered to France. Philip II of Spain, though a Catholic, threw his influence on the side of Elizabeth because he was suspicious of Frances power. latterlyr the Spanish ambassador hinted to Elizabeth that she owed her throne to Philip. Elizabeth replied that she owed it to her people. She is rattling much unify to her people, the ambassador wrote, and thinks as they do. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, she rode at once to London from her country home, traveling in a unbend procession to give the people a chance to see her. Guns boomed, bells rang, and the people cheered her and scattered flowers in her path. At the beginning of her restr ain England was in despair. The country had been weakened by war and phantasmal strife, and the treasury was empty. Spain and France were talenty, and both cherished to rule England. The people hoped their new-made queen would soon marry a strong man who would guide her. But Elizabeth at once took the government into her own give and, though she had many suitors and close friendships with several men, she unwaveringly refused to marry. The young queen chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley), who was cautious and conservative like herself. For 40 years he was her mainstay in both home and st blow affairs. Her favorite courtier was the charming and handsome Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. When she died at the age of 69, she was still called the saturated Queen. By indeed rich and secure, England was en triumphing its greatest literary period. English ships were journey into all seas, and the island kingdom had begun to establish its position as a worl d leader. In religious matters Elizabeth steered a middle campaign between the extreme Protestants and the Catholics. She restored the Protestant service but retained many features of Catholicism, including bishops and archbishops. She hoped this com presage would produce unity in the state but the Catholics, who formed a absolute studyity of her subjects, were not reconciled. From time to time some of them plot with Spain or France to put Mary Stuart on the throne in interpose of Elizabeth. France and Spain were rivals, and Elizabeth was usually able to play one off against the other. She even used courtship as part of her diplomatic game. She refused to marry Philip II of Spain but held out hopes to more than one of his royal relatives when France seemed to threaten. Later, when Philip turned against England, Elizabeth encouraged French princes. To cut Scotlands ties with France, she gave cryptic help to the Scottish Presbyterians. She also aided the Protestant Netherlands wh en they revolted against Spain. Mary Stuart returned to Scotland in 1561 after the death of her husband, Francis, king of France. In 1568 she was compelled to take to the woods across the English bsociety to ask Elizabeths help. Elizabeth kept her a captive for 19 years. lastly Mary was incriminate of having a part in the so-called Babington plot to assassinate Elizabeth. Parliament demanded her execution. Elizabeth signed the warrant and Mary Stuart was beheaded in 1587. In the last years of Elizabeths overtop, Catholics were cruelly persecuted and many were put to death. pommel of the Spanish Armada During the first 30 years of Elizabeths endure England was at peace. transaction revived, and English ships were boldly venturing across the seas to the West Indies. there they came into conflict with Spain and Portugal, which owned and govern the whole New World and claimed a monopoly of trade. English smugglers stony-broke through the blockade and made huge meshwork by se lling, in the West Indies, blacks they had seized in Africa. John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, and other English seamen also waylaid Spanish ships on their way home and seized their gold. Elizabeth aided the English privateers with ships and money and divided in their profits and stolen treasure. Philip II finally refractory to put an end to these attacks by invading and conquering England. later years of preparation, Philip assembled a great fleet of his best and largest warships, called by the Spanish the Armada (that is, fleet). In 1588 the Armada sailed into the English Channel. The English were waiting for them and at once put out to sea. Their ships were of newer design, smaller than the Spanish galleons, but faster and more heavily armed. In a nine-day battle they inflicted terrible losses on the enemy. The ships that escaped ran into tough weather and only a few returned to Spain. English ships past carried the war to Spain. When the struggle endedafter the deaths of bot h Elizabeth and Philipno Spanish fleet dared to contest Englands command of the seas. Englands rosy Age The most splendid period of English literature, called the Elizabethan Age, began in the later years of Elizabeths reign. Francis Bacon, writer of the Essays, was one of the queens lawyers. Edmund Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene in her honor. Shakespeare acted before her but at the time of her death he had not yet write most of his great tragedies. Elizabeth enjoyed plays, but there is no evidence that she appreciated Shakespeares genius. Elizabeth was 55 years old when the Spanish Armada was defeated. Her joy in the mastery was soon followed by grief, because her great favorite, Leicester, died a few months later. In 1598 her crimp minister Lord Burleigh passed away. In her court appeared young menSir Walter Raleigh, brilliant and adventurous, and the earl of Essex, a handsome young changeier. Essex fell from favor and Elizabeth had him executed for trying to vibrate up a rebellion against her. She died two years later, in 1603, at the age of 69, and was buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey. Mary Stuarts son, throng VI of Scotland, was proclaimed James I of England, consequently uniting the crowns of the two kingdoms. The things we think of chiefly as marking the reign of Elizabeth are the religious question, the defeat of the Spanish Armada, and the flourishing of literature. to a fault key, however, were hundreds of laws on transferral, commerce, constancy, currency reform, roads, vile relief, and agriculture. These laws shaped the policy of England for more than two centuries after Elizabeths reign had ended.AztecsThe Aztec Indians, who are known for their domination of southern and central Mexico, ruled between the cardinalth and 16th centuries. Their name is derived from Azatlan, the homeland of the north. The Aztecs also call themselves Mexica and there language came from the Nahuatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec civilization occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake Texcoco. Late families were unfortunate and were forced to go to the swamp lands. In the swamp lands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes. The Aztec families some how converted these disadvantages to a might empire known as they Aztec Empire. People say the empire was part formed by a deeply believed legend. As the legend went it utter that Aztec people would name a empire on in a swampy inject where they would see an eagle eating a ophidian while perched on a cactus which is growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This is what priests claimed they motto while entering the new land. By the year 1325 their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the capital city aqueducts (piping) were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by piled up mud. On these ch inapas Aztecs grew corn, beans, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, and tobacco. Tenochtitlan (the capital city) was cover in life-threateningweight religious statues in order to pay their view to the gods. In the Aztec organized religion numerous gods controlled an Aztecs daily life. Some of these gods include Uitzilpochtli (the lie god), Coyolxauhqui (the moon goddess), Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzalcoatl (the inventor of the calendar and writing). Another part of the Aztec religion was human sacrifices. For their sacrifices the priest would lay the man or woman over a lenticular (rounded) stone, and because he would take a nipping knife and cut the victims heart out. They did this because they believed that beloved gods could balk bad gods from doing vile things and they also believed that good gods got their strength from human blood and hearts so they had sacrifices in order to keep their gods strong. For major rituals warriors were sacrificed, for the warrior this w as one of the greatest honors and for minor rituals prisoners were used. In an Aztec marriage the grooms shirt is tied to the brides dress in order to express their bind and after the wedding incents were burned for 4 eld before doing with the marriage. In 1519 Hernando Cortes, a Spanish explorer, led over 500 men into Aztec territory to search for gold. Aztecs thought he was a representative for a sealed white skinned god so they respected him. It all changed when the Aztecs saw that Hernando was melting down their golden statues and shipping them cover song to Spain. The Aztecs determined to attack Hernando and his men. The Aztecs were successful and drove the Spanish away. In 1520 the Spanish attacked the Aztecs capital city and destroyed their civilization. That was the end of the Aztecs mighty empire had built so long ago.Spanish searchThe search was a religious social movement to find and give punishment to heretics . The word inquisition comes from the word inquisi tio, or inquest. The word inquisitio refers to the legal process that named the tribunals. It involved purpose and interrogating suspects of crimes under profanity to tell the truth. Some would condemn themselves. This regularity of finding heretics worked very well with the Waldensians and the Cathars. In France, the Templars were persecuted by the Inquisitors. In the year 392 A.D. the Roman Emperor Thodosius I outlawed every religion that was not Christian or Jewish. by and by he declared that, heresy became not only a religious offense, but also a civil one. Heretics began yucky quite oft in the eleven and twelve hundreds, so the Church took over the barter of finding and punishing heretics. In 1231, a special court was weed by Pope Gregory IV to demand that all heretics get under ones skin Christians. The Congregation of the holy Office took control of the hunt in 1542. The settle for the search were or so all Dominican and Franciscan friars. The Inquisition took place mostly in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. It did take place in other countries, but not as commonly. The investigations were in secret and almost all of the inquisitors do by their powers. Most Inquisitors were Dominican monks, appointed by the head of the Inquisition. Inquisitors and judge of the Inquisition could be compared to the prosecutors and judges of todays courts, to use an analogy. The inquisitor-general would appoint tribunals. Tribunals are groups of inquisitors. During an inquisition, two inquisitors, who travelled together, would call out to a town, city, or village for confessions. Only males under age fourteen and females under age twelve would not be considered as heretics. Questions would be asked of those accused in the local language. The answers were written down by scribes in Latin. The accused would never be defended by anyone, because hence the defender would be thought to be a heretic. The accused ones would not even know who had accused them. J udgments were given on Sundays, in a sermon. Punishment could range from death to paying a fine. Usually heretics were killed. The Inquisition in England was modify when the Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation was started. It was to prevent more variation the Protestantism and to clean up the church. The sale of indulgences was no durable permitted. It was completely through away with. Fear of the Inquisition was also used to discourage befitting Protestant and abandoning Catholicism, for fear of beingness attempt as a heretic. In the fifteen hundreds, the Inquisition was used by the Catholic church against Protestants. Also from the Counter-Reformation came the Jesuits, or the Society of deliveryman, which was a group of stiff missionaries. During the Spanish Inquisition alone, from 1478 to 1834, thousands of people were torment and killed. The individual responsible for the death of over two thousand Spaniards was Tomas de Torquemanda. He was the leader of the Spanish Inquisition for fifteen years, from 1483 to 1498. He created the rules and precedents of inquisitorial procedure. He formed branches of the Inquisition in many major cities. When the Spanish Inquisition got out of hand, the Church try to stop it but they could not halt it. The Spanish Inquisition ran its reign of terror from 1478 to 1834. It was say by Mark in Mark 422 that Jesus said, For there is nothing to be hid, leave off to be made manifest, nor is anything secret, except to come to light. The death of all those innocents was something that the Church had tried to hide. They would be imprison for days, months, even years, after one hearing, some to finally be torment to death. The prisoners would have moldy food and stale pissing, along with cockroaches and other vermin, to keep them company in the dark. As mentioned earlier, suspected heretics were interrogated. The term should be tortured, in innumerable cases. The inquisitors tortured prisoners t o coerce them to confess. There were many ways that heretics would be tortured. Many were very gruesome. Torture has been used by many societies, in all times and places, even now. One method of torture was the use of pear-shaped devices that were forced into the mouth, anus, or vagina and then expanded, by way of mechanical devices, to thereby expand the body cavity. This would irreparably defame the tissues, because each pair had points on it. Almost everyone would die after having this make to them. One other way of persuading heretics to confess was Squassation. This was through use of the Strappardo. This was through with(p) by ligature the victims hands behind their post and lifting them into the air by their wrists, while having heavy weights attached to their ankles or testicles. Then, they would be dropped almost to the ground and jerked to a stop. This would a lot dislocate the fortify and cause much impose on _or_ oppress to the body part of which the weights were attached. People would be mock-crucified also, by being nailed to a door in the manner of crucifixion. The door would then be swung back and forth or slammed shut quickly. Some heretics were given the water torture, which consisted of forcing the person to drink water through a funnel until they died or confessed. Heretics were also be burned to death on stakes. Some were killed by being put in an oven and being roasted. If suspected heretics would not confess to heresy, then they would often be burned at the stake. In 1224, Frederick II made it a law that heretics must die by fire. One of the finish off times in the Inquisition was in the sixteen hundreds. During that period, anything bad that happened could be blamed on witches. Neighbors would accuse each other of being witches over soured milk, lice, and any other minor problem that would occur. If a person said that they didnt believe in witches or demons, then they would be accused of being a witch or a heretic. Torture has b een proven to be an inefficacious method of getting the truth out of someone. A person in great pain might admit to anything, even if innocent. One Templar who had been tortured said, Under such torture, I would have confessed to cleanup spot God.GuildsGuilds were created in the eye Ages and were groups of people with a common interest in a certain(p) trade. There were many different types of baseball clubs varying from religious and social purchase orders to crafts and woodworking guilds. The main purposes of these guilds were to prevent individual businesses from controlling all of the business of a certain trade. This proved profitable for the smaller businesses. Individuals who refused to join the guild of their art were forced to leave the town. Guilds also had their own particular coat of arms and badges for members. swap guilds, comprised of bakers, goldsmiths, tailors, weavers, boatmen, and other craft workers, created rules to protect members of the guilds. possibl y the most important of the above guilds were those of the boatmen, which were in the coastal port cities. The merchants guilds created rules that set a stock on prices of their products. The members could not sell discounted items to people who were not members of the guild. They also set standards on the quality of their goods and agreed on issue for their workers. To become part of a guild, workers went through an initiation ceremony and other rites. These rites were known as collegia. Being a member of a guild had some advantages. along with a social station, the workers received assistance from the guild when it was carryed. The guild helped members with charity, funeral ceremonies, prayers for the dead, and provided other work for the members in their times of need. The guilds built halls and market places and helped with church and town projects. all of their crafts and creations were of great quality. If a member of the guild made an item of abject quality he was punish ed with fines. If he continued to make the crafts with the same(p) quality he would be expelled from the guild. The craft workers who became very successful in their trade and who owned their own shops became the master of the guild. Craft workers who did not fully master their trade, or did not run their own shops were the journeymen. The journeymen worked in the shops of the get the hang everyday and received pay from them. Young men who were learning certain trades became known as apprentices and received housing and meals from their master. After about two to seven years, an apprentice could become a journeyman. Journeymen who wanted to become masters had to show evidence of great skill. He also had to pass an run or make a product in his craft. The product would then be judged by the other masters be to his guild. If the product was considered a masterpiece, the journeyman would become a master. Because it soon became more and more unmanageable for people to become masters, journeymen soon created their own associations. They apart(p) from their masters because their take were not being met and this angered the masters. The masters tried to fight back by securing the passage of laws prohibiting them. They were defeated most of the time by the guilds, its members and officials in the town. Merchants and craftsmen had great honor in their trade. This caused them to make their products with nothing but the best and because of their quality crafts, they took in great amounts of money. If the passkey of the town was in need of money, he would made the merchants and craftsmen feel obligated to give their money by making them feel guilty and selfish. Many times, merchants were robbed on their journeys and within the towns they sold their items. Sometimes merchants were falsely accused of owing other merchants and people money. If he did not belong to a guild, it was his word against theirs. If he did belong to a guild, the members supported him. Because of the danger on the merchants journey, caravans, or groups of merchants which travelled together, soon developed. Cities developed around areas which contained items or food of value and where it was well-to-do for merchants to carry to and then sell their items. Guild halls were built as a meeting house for medieval craft and trade guilds to meet. The guild hall in London, known as the Council Hall, is famous for its great hall and crypt. new(prenominal) countries, such as Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, have excellent examples of Guild halls. The Lord city manager of Londons banquet is held annually at the Guild hall in London. Because guilds became so popular and large, they became powerful in the government of the towns. When guilds needed permission to do something from their master key, they had to have the lord write his promise down and then it would be locked up safely in a strong chest in their Guild hall. This promise was called a charter. Guilds conti nued to increase their power by asking the lord for charters and were soon able to run a small portion of the town. They asked for a charter to allow them to appoint men to govern the town quite a than the lords bailiff. Usually in return for this allowance, the guild had to pay a repair rent each year. When they were allowed this, the guild was in pip of most of the town. As if the guilds were not complex and powerful enough, they decided to create associations of guilds, which controlled common extraneous markets. Some examples of these associations are the League of the Flemish cities, touch with the English woollen trade. The association of North German cities, known as the Hanseatic League, controlled trades on the Baltic and North Seas. By the 1300s, guilds began to lose their protection and democratic sides. Guild membership began to pass down through the generations from father to son. This made it more delicate for new members to join the guilds. The increase of capit alistic industry was responsiHistorical People and EventsHistorical People and EventsJoan of ArcJoan of Arc is a national heroine of France honored and respected by everyone. She was an illiterate peasant girl who rose to the ranks of leading French armies to victory against England until her capture when she was only 19 years old. She was executed as a heretic in a politically motivated trial. Twenty four years later the Catholic Church declared her innocence and she was canonized as a saint in 1920. She was born in a time when France and England were at war. The Armagnacs and the Burgundians were two French factions at war with each other. By 1484 England was occupying Northern France. The English began a siege of Orleans. Her parents were Jacques dArc and Isabelle Rome. Her father was a farmer and a minor village official. She got her first visions at the age of 12 where St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret told her to expel the English. She obtained an interview with the royal French court where she predicted about military reverses of the English near Orleans. She was responsible for pursuing an aggressive offensive strategy by the French army in the siege of Orleans. The defeat of English led to the capture of Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, Beaugency and annihilated the English army at the battle of Patay. A truce was signed between the two French factions following the arrival of the French army at Reims. The agreement was broken by Duke Philip. A French advance towards Paris was put off after an order to withdraw. Joan was captured on May 1430 following a skirmish with the English. She was put on trial for heresy in a politically motivated trial. She had supported the other side in France. She was executed for heresy. The inquisitors who interviewed her could not find any evidence of heresy and were convinced of her innocent. The priests who had put her on trial were forced and intimidated by the English government to pronounce heresy. Joan of Arc i s honored and revered as a heroine throughout her life and beyond. The French military was inspired by her use of artillery and frontal tactics in warfare. Legends have survived about her legacy. The best known is that she did not feel pain during her execution. She is also believed to have died peacefully. She rose to prominence from an illiterate peasant girl to an inspiration for the French military. She gave hope to a discredited regime and inspired the French people to fight a popular war of national liberation. Joan of Arc expelled women from the French army and did not believe in feminism. She has been a political symbol ever since her death. The Vichy government, French resistance, liberals, conservatives, etc have all used her for their political purposes. Many people have studied about the religious visions of Joan. Most people believe in the sincerity of her faith. They consider it to be divine inspiration. Documents which detail about her visions are vague and possibly s ome fabrications have been added. Some researchers have tried to explain her visions in the form of neurological or psychiatric terms. This view has been opposed by many historians on grounds that hallucinations and hearing voices does not necessarily point to mental illness. Further a person with such lifestyle like Joan would have found it hard to assign if she had a serious disease. The court of King Charles VII was highly skeptical and shrewd with regards to mental illness. His own father suffered from insanity and under him France began a long decline. Her boldness and physical rigor of her military career counters the theory that she suffered from any cognitive impairment. Joan of Arc remains a popular heroine and political symbol in France. She passionately pursued a national war of liberation and inspired the French to regain hope. She was sincere in faith. Her sincerity and legacy remain stronger than ever even after her death more than five hundred years ago.Johannes Gute nbergGutenberg was a German Printer, and Pioneer in the use of movable type, he was sometimes identified as the first European to print with hand-set type cast and molds. Although he was not the only person working on the printing press, he was considered to be the main part of it. Gutenbergs name does not appear on any of the works attributed to him, but historical records have given evidence that he is indeed the one who printed them. Johannes Gutenberg was born in 1397. He was born into a noble family in the city of Mainz, a mining town, in Southern Germany. His father was Friele Gansfleisch, his mother was Else Wyrich. His early training was as a goldsmith and an inventor. In 1428, he moved to Strasbourg for political reasons. He remained there for over twenty years. It was in Strasbourg that he made his first experiments with movable type. Gutenberg had the idea of modernizing techniques of metalworking, such as casting, punch-cutting, and stamping, for the mass production of b ooks. Gutenberg became more and more intrigued by these subjects, which led to further experiments with movable type. He started to experiment with metal molds, alloys, special presses, and oil based inks. Little did he know that this experimentation, with a little increased work, would remain the main type of printing until the late twentieth century. In 1438 Gutenberg entered into a partnership with Andreas Dritzehn to conduct experiments in printing. Gutenberg taught Dritzehn about what he had learned dealing with movable type. In about 1450 Gutenberg returned to Mainz, where he formed yet another partnership with a German merchant and a money lender by the name of Johann Fust. With the money that he borrowed from Fust, Gutenberg was able to open up a press where he did additional research and experiments with movable type. It was sometime between 1450 and 1456 that Gutenberg set to work, and completed, a forty- two line Bible (it was 42 lines per page). The bible was referred to as the Gutenberg Bible, also known as the Mazarine Bible, or the 42-lined bible. Today there is only 47 extant copies, the most widely known presently was acquired by the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Only two other perfect copies of the Gutenberg Bible are known to exist today. The Gutenberg Bible was widely known for its beauty and elegance. A German printer, Peter Schoffer, Fusts son-in-law, and Gutenbergs apprentice helped to print the work of the Bible. Gutenbergs main goal was to mechanically retch medieval liturgical manuscripts without taking away their color or design. In 1455 Fust demanded that Gutenberg repay the money that was invested in the business. This dispute resulted in a lawsuit in which Gutenberg abandoned his claims to his invention and gave up his stocks. Even though he had a dispute with Fust, Gutenberg continued his work with printing. During the years following the dispute and lawsuit Gutenberg printed several small but popular items such as cal endars, but in 1458 Gutenberg printed another bible, only this one was the 36 line Bible. Gutenberg began to re-establish his printing press company with the help of a man named Conrad Humery. At around 1460 Gutenberg was able to print the Missale speciale constantiense as well as the Catholicon. Gutenbergs press was made up of characters of equal height, and these characters were printed on hand-made paper. His press involved a mold that had the outlines of letters and other characters stamped into it. Letters of type could be produced quickly by pouring liquid metal into the pre-made molds. These stamped and molded letters were then put together to make pages of printing. Gutenbergs accomplishments with movable type made book production more economically possible, and easier to produce literature quicker. The new innovations in the printing press opened new possibilities for German literature. The printing press allowed an easier exchange of ideas throughout Europe and helped spre ad the ideas of the Renaissance. As more productions of literature occurred, more different languages were also printed out. Gutenbergs invention brought the printed word to a wider audience, altering history with its big impact on literacy and education. Before books were able to be printed with the printing press people had to believe what they heard from other people. They werent able to rely on what they read from history books or other sources of information. Before the printing press was invented, making books was a long and hard process, and the books that were produced were extremely costly. The printing press provided a practical and inexpensive way to produce literature. It was a particularly valuable invention, and it made a great contribution to the world. With the invention of the printing press reading and writing were no longer restricted to religious things, or to the rich. People soon learned to question the authority of the ruling class, which was also part of the spread of the Renaissance. The printing press sparked an enlightenment and widespread access and appreciation for classical art and literature. These new appreciations developed a new passion among people for artistic self expression. Without the printing press, the Renaissance may never have occurred.Queen Elizabeth IElizabeths Childhood and Youth Elizabeth was born near London on Sept. 7, 1533. Her father was Henry VIII, bluff King Hal. Her mother was Anne Boleyn, the second of Henrys six wives. Henrys first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had only one surviving child, Mary. Henry wanted a male heir, so he asked the pope to annul the marriage. Because the pope refused, Henry broke away from the Roman Catholic church and set himself up as head of the church in England. Then he married Anne. He was disappointed that Annes child also was a girl. Before Elizabeth was 3 years old, he had her mother beheaded. Henry gave Elizabeth a house of her own in the country. He paid little attention t o her, and her governess complained that the princess hath neither gown, nor kirtle, nor petticoat. Henry provided excellent tutors, however, and Elizabeth showed a love for learning. One of her tutors, Roger Ascham, wrote Her perseverance is equal to that of a man, and her memory long keeps what it quickly picks up. She talks French and Italian as well as she does English. When she writes Greek and Latin, nothing is more beautiful than her handwriting. She delights as much in music as she is skillful in it. Henrys third wife, Jane Seymour, gave birth to a son, Edward. Henry died when Edward was 10 years old, and the boy came to the throne as Edward VI. Elizabeth and Edward were both brought up in Henrys new church. Their half sister Mary was brought up a Roman Catholic. When Edward died in 1553, Mary became queen and at once made Catholicism the state religion. Mary suspected Elizabeth of plotting with the Protestants to gain the throne and had her imprisoned for two months in the Tower of London. When Mary died, there were two claimants to the throne. If Elizabeth did not succeed, the next heir was Mary Stuart of Scotland, a Catholic. Mary Stuart was about to be married to the dauphin Francis of France. If she won the throne of England, both Scotland and England would be joined to France. Philip II of Spain, though a Catholic, threw his influence on the side of Elizabeth because he was jealous of Frances power. Later the Spanish ambassador hinted to Elizabeth that she owed her throne to Philip. Elizabeth replied that she owed it to her people. She is very much wedded to her people, the ambassador wrote, and thinks as they do. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, she rode at once to London from her country home, traveling in a slow procession to give the people a chance to see her. Guns boomed, bells rang, and the people cheered her and scattered flowers in her path. At the beginning of her reign England was in despair. The country had been weakened by war an d religious strife, and the treasury was empty. Spain and France were powerful, and both wanted to rule England. The people hoped their young queen would soon marry a strong man who would guide her. But Elizabeth at once took the government into her own hands and, though she had many suitors and close friendships with several men, she steadfastly refused to marry. The young queen chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley), who was cautious and conservative like herself. For 40 years he was her mainstay in both home and foreign affairs. Her favorite courtier was the charming and handsome Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. When she died at the age of 69, she was still called the Virgin Queen. By then rich and secure, England was enjoying its greatest literary period. English ships were sailing into all seas, and the island kingdom had begun to establish its position as a world leader. In religious matters Elizabeth steered a middle course between the extreme Protesta nts and the Catholics. She restored the Protestant service but retained many features of Catholicism, including bishops and archbishops. She hoped this compromise would produce unity in the state but the Catholics, who formed a majority of her subjects, were not reconciled. From time to time some of them plotted with Spain or France to put Mary Stuart on the throne in place of Elizabeth. France and Spain were rivals, and Elizabeth was usually able to play one off against the other. She even used courtship as part of her diplomatic game. She refused to marry Philip II of Spain but held out hopes to more than one of his royal relatives when France seemed to threaten. Later, when Philip turned against England, Elizabeth encouraged French princes. To cut Scotlands ties with France, she gave secret help to the Scottish Presbyterians. She also aided the Protestant Netherlands when they revolted against Spain. Mary Stuart returned to Scotland in 1561 after the death of her husband, Francis , king of France. In 1568 she was compelled to flee across the English border to ask Elizabeths help. Elizabeth kept her a prisoner for 19 years. Finally Mary was accused of having a part in the so-called Babington plot to assassinate Elizabeth. Parliament demanded her execution. Elizabeth signed the warrant and Mary Stuart was beheaded in 1587. In the last years of Elizabeths reign, Catholics were cruelly persecuted and many were put to death. Defeat of the Spanish Armada During the first 30 years of Elizabeths reign England was at peace. Commerce revived, and English ships were boldly venturing across the seas to the West Indies. There they came into conflict with Spain and Portugal, which owned and ruled the whole New World and claimed a monopoly of trade. English smugglers broke through the blockade and made huge profits by selling, in the West Indies, blacks they had seized in Africa. John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, and other English seamen also waylaid Spanish ships on their way home and seized their gold. Elizabeth aided the English privateers with ships and money and shared in their profits and stolen treasure. Philip II finally decided to put an end to these attacks by invading and conquering England. After years of preparation, Philip assembled a great fleet of his best and largest warships, called by the Spanish the Armada (that is, fleet). In 1588 the Armada sailed into the English Channel. The English were waiting for them and at once put out to sea. Their ships were of newer design, smaller than the Spanish galleons, but faster and more heavily armed. In a nine-day battle they inflicted terrible losses on the enemy. The ships that escaped ran into bad weather and only a few returned to Spain. English ships then carried the war to Spain. When the struggle endedafter the deaths of both Elizabeth and Philipno Spanish fleet dared to contest Englands command of the seas. Englands Golden Age The most splendid period of English literature, called the E lizabethan Age, began in the later years of Elizabeths reign. Francis Bacon, writer of the Essays, was one of the queens lawyers. Edmund Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene in her honor. Shakespeare acted before her but at the time of her death he had not yet written most of his great tragedies. Elizabeth enjoyed plays, but there is no evidence that she appreciated Shakespeares genius. Elizabeth was 55 years old when the Spanish Armada was defeated. Her joy in the victory was soon followed by grief, because her great favorite, Leicester, died a few months later. In 1598 her faithful minister Lord Burleigh passed away. In her court appeared young menSir Walter Raleigh, brilliant and adventurous, and the earl of Essex, a handsome young soldier. Essex fell from favor and Elizabeth had him executed for trying to stir up a rebellion against her. She died two years later, in 1603, at the age of 69, and was buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey. Mary Stuarts son, James VI of Scot land, was proclaimed James I of England, thus uniting the crowns of the two kingdoms. The things we think of chiefly as marking the reign of Elizabeth are the religious question, the defeat of the Spanish Armada, and the flourishing of literature. Also important, however, were hundreds of laws on shipping, commerce, industry, currency reform, roads, poor relief, and agriculture. These laws shaped the policy of England for more than two centuries after Elizabeths reign had ended.AztecsThe Aztec Indians, who are known for their domination of southern and central Mexico, ruled between the 14th and 16th centuries. Their name is derived from Azatlan, the homeland of the north. The Aztecs also call themselves Mexica and there language came from the Nahuatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec civilization occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake Texcoco. Late families were unfortunate and were forced to go to the swamp lands. In the swam p lands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes. The Aztec families some how converted these disadvantages to a might empire known as they Aztec Empire. People say the empire was partially formed by a deeply believed legend. As the legend went it said that Aztec people would create a empire on in a swampy place where they would see an eagle eating a snake while perched on a cactus which is growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This is what priests claimed they saw while entering the new land. By the year 1325 their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the capital city aqueducts (piping) were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by piled up mud. On these chinapas Aztecs grew corn, beans, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, and tobacco. Tenochtitlan (the capital city) was covered in giant religious statues in order to pay their respects to the gods. In the Az tec religion numerous gods controlled an Aztecs daily life. Some of these gods include Uitzilpochtli (the sun god), Coyolxauhqui (the moon goddess), Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzalcoatl (the inventor of the calendar and writing). Another part of the Aztec religion was human sacrifices. For their sacrifices the priest would lay the man or woman over a convex (rounded) stone, and then he would take a sharp knife and cut the victims heart out. They did this because they believed that good gods could prevent bad gods from doing evil things and they also believed that good gods got their strength from human blood and hearts so they had sacrifices in order to keep their gods strong. For major rituals warriors were sacrificed, for the warrior this was one of the greatest honors and for minor rituals prisoners were used. In an Aztec marriage the grooms shirt is tied to the brides dress in order to express their bonding and after the wedding incents were burned for 4 days before proceedin g with the marriage. In 1519 Hernando Cortes, a Spanish explorer, led over 500 men into Aztec territory to search for gold. Aztecs thought he was a representative for a certain white skinned god so they respected him. It all changed when the Aztecs saw that Hernando was melting down their golden statues and shipping them back to Spain. The Aztecs decided to attack Hernando and his men. The Aztecs were successful and drove the Spanish away. In 1520 the Spanish attacked the Aztecs capital city and destroyed their civilization. That was the end of the Aztecs mighty empire had built so long ago.Spanish InquisitionThe Inquisition was a religious movement to find and give punishment to heretics . The word inquisition comes from the word inquisitio, or inquest. The word inquisitio refers to the legal process that named the tribunals. It involved finding and interrogating suspects of crimes under oath to tell the truth. Some would condemn themselves. This method of finding heretics worked v ery well with the Waldensians and the Cathars. In France, the Templars were persecuted by the Inquisitors. In the year 392 A.D. the Roman Emperor Thodosius I outlawed every religion that was not Christian or Jewish. After he declared that, heresy became not only a religious offense, but also a civil one. Heretics began revolting quite frequently in the eleven and twelve hundreds, so the Church took over the job of finding and punishing heretics. In 1231, a special court was created by Pope Gregory IV to demand that all heretics become Christians. The Congregation of the Holy Office took control of the Inquisition in 1542. The judges for the Inquisition were almost all Dominican and Franciscan friars. The Inquisition took place mostly in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. It did take place in other countries, but not as commonly. The investigations were in secret and almost all of the inquisitors abused their powers. Most Inquisitors were Dominican monks, appointed by the head of the Inquisition. Inquisitors and judges of the Inquisition could be compared to the prosecutors and judges of todays courts, to use an analogy. The inquisitor-general would appoint tribunals. Tribunals are groups of inquisitors. During an inquisition, two inquisitors, who traveled together, would call out to a town, city, or village for confessions. Only males under age fourteen and females under age twelve would not be considered as heretics. Questions would be asked of those accused in the local language. The answers were written down by scribes in Latin. The accused would never be defended by anyone, because then the defender would be thought to be a heretic. The accused ones would not even know who had accused them. Judgments were given on Sundays, in a sermon. Punishment could range from death to paying a fine. Usually heretics were killed. The Inquisition in England was strengthened when the Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation was started. It was to preven t more conversion the Protestantism and to clean up the church. The sale of indulgences was no longer permitted. It was completely done away with. Fear of the Inquisition was also used to discourage becoming Protestant and abandoning Catholicism, for fear of being tried as a heretic. In the fifteen hundreds, the Inquisition was used by the Catholic church against Protestants. Also from the Counter-Reformation came the Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, which was a group of powerful missionaries. During the Spanish Inquisition alone, from 1478 to 1834, thousands of people were tortured and killed. The person responsible for the death of over two thousand Spaniards was Tomas de Torquemanda. He was the leader of the Spanish Inquisition for fifteen years, from 1483 to 1498. He created the rules and precedents of inquisitorial procedure. He formed branches of the Inquisition in many major cities. When the Spanish Inquisition got out of hand, the Church tried to stop it but they could not halt it. The Spanish Inquisition ran its reign of terror from 1478 to 1834. It was said by Mark in Mark 422 that Jesus said, For there is nothing to be hid, except to be made manifest, nor is anything secret, except to come to light. The death of all those innocents was something that the Church had tried to hide. They would be imprisoned for days, months, even years, after one hearing, some to finally be tortured to death. The prisoners would have moldy food and stale water, along with cockroaches and other vermin, to keep them company in the dark. As mentioned earlier, suspected heretics were interrogated. The term should be tortured, in innumerable cases. The inquisitors tortured prisoners to coerce them to confess. There were many ways that heretics would be tortured. Many were very gruesome. Torture has been used by many societies, in all times and places, even now. One method of torture was the use of pear-shaped devices that were forced into the mouth, anus, or vagina and the n expanded, by way of mechanical devices, to thereby expand the body cavity. This would irreparably damage the tissues, because each pair had points on it. Almost everyone would die after having this done to them. One other way of persuading heretics to confess was Squassation. This was through use of the Strappardo. This was done by tying the victims hands behind their back and lifting them into the air by their wrists, while having heavy weights attached to their ankles or testicles. Then, they would be dropped almost to the ground and jerked to a stop. This would often dislocate the arms and cause much damage to the body part of which the weights were attached. People would be mock-crucified also, by being nailed to a door in the manner of crucifixion. The door would then be swung back and forth or slammed shut quickly. Some heretics were given the water torture, which consisted of forcing the person to drink water through a funnel until they died or confessed. Heretics were also be burned to death on stakes. Some were killed by being put in an oven and being roasted. If suspected heretics would not confess to heresy, then they would often be burned at the stake. In 1224, Frederick II made it a law that heretics must die by fire. One of the worst times in the Inquisition was in the sixteen hundreds. During that period, anything bad that happened could be blamed on witches. Neighbors would accuse each other of being witches over soured milk, lice, and any other minor problem that would occur. If a person said that they didnt believe in witches or demons, then they would be accused of being a witch or a heretic. Torture has been proven to be an ineffective method of getting the truth out of someone. A person in great pain might admit to anything, even if innocent. One Templar who had been tortured said, Under such torture, I would have confessed to killing God.GuildsGuilds were created in the Middle Ages and were groups of people with a common interest in a c ertain trade. There were many different types of guilds varying from religious and social guilds to crafts and carpentry guilds. The main purposes of these guilds were to prevent individual businesses from controlling all of the business of a certain trade. This proved profitable for the smaller businesses. Individuals who refused to join the guild of their profession were forced to leave the town. Guilds also had their own specific coat of arms and badges for members. Craft guilds, comprised of bakers, goldsmiths, tailors, weavers, boatmen, and other craft workers, created rules to protect members of the guilds. Perhaps the most important of the above guilds were those of the boatmen, which were in the coastal port cities. The merchants guilds created rules that set a standard on prices of their products. The members could not sell discounted items to people who were not members of the guild. They also set standards on the quality of their goods and agreed on wages for their worker s. To become part of a guild, workers went through an initiation ceremony and other rites. These rites were known as collegia. Being a member of a guild had some advantages. Along with a membership, the workers received assistance from the guild when it was needed. The guild helped members with charity, funeral ceremonies, prayers for the dead, and provided other services for the members in their times of need. The guilds built halls and market places and helped with church and town projects. all of their crafts and creations were of great quality. If a member of the guild made an item of poor quality he was punished with fines. If he continued to make the crafts with the same quality he would be expelled from the guild. The craft workers who became very successful in their trade and who owned their own shops became the masters of the guild. Craft workers who did not fully master their trade, or did not run their own shops were the journeymen. The journeymen worked in the shops of t he masters everyday and received pay from them. Young men who were learning certain trades became known as apprentices and received housing and meals from their master. After about two to seven years, an apprentice could become a journeyman. Journeymen who wanted to become masters had to show evidence of great skill. He also had to pass an examination or make a product in his craft. The product would then be judged by the other masters belonging to his guild. If the product was considered a masterpiece, the journeyman would become a master. Because it soon became more and more difficult for people to become masters, journeymen soon created their own associations. They separated from their masters because their needs were not being met and this angered the masters. The masters tried to fight back by securing the passage of laws prohibiting them. They were defeated most of the time by the guilds, its members and officials in the town. Merchants and craftsmen had great honor in their t rade. This caused them to make their products with nothing but the best and because of their quality crafts, they took in great amounts of money. If the lord of the town was in need of money, he would made the merchants and craftsmen feel obligated to donate their money by making them feel guilty and selfish. Many times, merchants were robbed on their journeys and within the towns they sold their items. Sometimes merchants were falsely accused of owing other merchants and people money. If he did not belong to a guild, it was his word against theirs. If he did belong to a guild, the members supported him. Because of the danger on the merchants journey, caravans, or groups of merchants which traveled together, soon developed. Cities developed around areas which contained items or food of value and where it was convenient for merchants to carry to and then sell their items. Guild halls were built as a meeting house for medieval craft and trade guilds to meet. The guild hall in London, known as the Council Hall, is famous for its great hall and crypt. Other countries, such as Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, have excellent examples of Guild halls. The Lord Mayor of Londons banquet is held annually at the Guild hall in London. Because guilds became so popular and large, they became powerful in the government of the towns. When guilds needed permission to do something from their lord, they had to have the lord write his promise down and then it would be locked up safely in a strong chest in their Guild hall. This promise was called a charter. Guilds continued to increase their power by asking the lord for charters and were soon able to run a small portion of the town. They asked for a charter to allow them to appoint men to govern the town rather than the lords bailiff. Usually in return for this allowance, the guild had to pay a fixed rent each year. When they were allowed this, the guild was in charge of most of the town. As if the guilds were not co mplex and powerful enough, they decided to create associations of guilds, which controlled common foreign markets. Some examples of these associations are the League of the Flemish cities, concerned with the English wool trade. The association of North German cities, known as the Hanseatic League, controlled trades on the Baltic and North Seas. By the 1300s, guilds began to lose their protection and democratic sides. Guild membership began to pass down through the generations from father to son. This made it more difficult for new members to join the guilds. The increase of capitalistic industry was responsi